Misinformation and How to Correct It

Abstract

The increasing prevalence of misinformation in society may adversely affect democratic decision making, which depends on a well-informed public. False information can originate from a number of sources including rumors, literary fiction, mainstream media, corporate-vested interests, governments, and nongovernmental organizations. The rise of the Internet and user-driven content has provided a venue for quick and broad dissemination of information, not all of which is accurate. Consequently, a large body of research spanning a number of disciplines has sought to understand misinformation and determine which interventions are most effective in reducing its influence. This essay summarizes research into misinformation, bringing together studies from psychology, political science, education, and computer science. Cognitive psychology investigates why individuals struggle with correcting misinformation and inaccurate beliefs, and why myths are so difficult to dislodge. Two important findings involve (i) various "backfire effects," which arise when refutations ironically reinforce misconceptions, and (ii) the role of worldviews in accentuating the persistence of misinformation. Computer scientists simulate the spread of misinformation through social networks and develop algorithms to automatically detect or neutralize myths. We draw together various research threads to provide guidelines on how to effectively refute misconceptions without risking backfire effects.

Fake news as a two-dimensional phenomenon: a framework and research agenda

“…As we conceptualize fake news as a form of disinformation, it likely leads to misperceptions with politically relevant consequences (Lazer et al, 2017). Misperceptions are easily formed, often after first exposure (Cook, Ecker, & Lewandowsky, 2015). If disinformation is perceived to be a result of journalistic practice, citizens might evaluate content less critically.…”

Countering Superintelligence Misinformation

“…However, when superintelligence misinformation cannot be prevented, there are strategies available for correcting it in the minds of those who are exposed to it. Correcting misinformation is the subject of a fairly extensive literature in psychology, political science, and related fields [2,15,33,49]. For readers unfamiliar with this literature, Cook et al [2] provide an introductory overview accessible to an interdisciplinary readership, while Ecker et al [15] provide a more detailed and technical survey.…”

“…(As is elaborated below, arguments can qualify as misinformation even when the issues are unsettled.) More generally, misinformation can be defined as "false or inaccurate information" [1], or as "information that is initially presented as true but later found to be false" [2] (p. 1). This paper addresses the question of what can be done to reduce the spread of and belief in superintelligence misinformation.…”

“…In the absence of dedicated literature on superintelligence misinformation, this paper draws heavily on the more extensive research literature studying misinformation about other topics, especially global warming (e.g., [10,13,14]), as well as the general literature on misinformation in psychology, cognitive science, political science, sociology, and related fields (for reviews, see [2,15]). This paper synthesizes insights from these literatures and applies them to the particular circumstances of superintelligence.…”

Informing Public Perceptions About Climate Change: A ‘Mental Models’ Approach

“…Brochures that use the 'myths vs. facts' format actually increase the likelihood that recipients will remember the myths, as compared to brochures that only focus on the facts (Schwarz et al 2007). Drawing people's attention to the falsehood of previously presented information does little to change initial beliefs (Green and Donahue 2011), and may 6 actually strengthen them (Cook et al 2015;Skurnik et al 2005). Thus, effective climate change communication is not as straightforward as "just showing the facts" and requires an understanding of how recipients interpret and use the presented information.…”