Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey

Abstract

Since its discovery in 1987, the Early Bronze Kestel Mine has been a topic of archaeological and geological controversy. The initial interpretation of the extensive marble-hosted galleries as the oldest known tin mine was challenged due to the low tin grade in remaining hematite-quartz veins, and it was suggested that Kestel was more likely mined for gold. Mineralogical analysis of the remaining mineralization was compared to a heavy mineral concentrate extracted from the soil preserved within the mine. The compositionally complex, arsenate-rich mineral assemblage from the mine sediment, contrasts with that of the remaining surface mineralization. Thus, the outcropping veins do not represent the nature of the extracted ore. Only one grain of gold was found in the heavy mineral concentrate, whereas cassiterite composed 1.5% of the sample. Cassiterite occurs in complex assemblages with arsenates, clays, hematite, quartz, and dolomite, bearing resemblance to hematite-arsenate tin mineralization that occurs near Kayseri, 60 km to the northeast. These findings indicate that although gold was a trace component of the Kestel ore, cassiterite was the mineral of interest to the Early Bronze Age miners, and that Kestel represents the earliest evidence thus far for an emerging pattern of local tin exploitation.

Distribution and Contamination Level of Cuprum (Cu) and Plumbum (Pb) in Bulk Sediments of the Bangka Island

“…The process of weathering and sedimentation led to the precipitation of PbS, which was then mixed with secondary Sn in ancient river channels. It was physically enriched due to its specific gravity (Powell et al, 2021). Mining activities, comprising the excavation of earth layers, exposed the galena content in secondary Sn deposits, which reacted in various locations.…”

Using Mediterranean Native Plants for the Phytoremediation of Mining Sites: An Overview of the Past and Present, and Perspectives for the Future

“…A large variety of minerals and raw materials have been exploited in Turkey, and several mine sites are present, both inactive and operating, and also of historical interest (i.e., Kestel mines for tin [63]).…”