Milk skin formation during drying

Buckling and collapse during drying of a single aqueous dispersion of casein micelle droplet

“…2b. This observation is consistent with established mechanisms for particle drying (F€ aldt & Bergenståhl, 1994;Kim, Chen, & Pearce, 2003;Kentish, Davidson, Hassan, & Bloore, 2005;Wang & Langrish, 2009) in which evaporation is controlled at the beginning of drying by diffusion of the water from the droplet surface toward the surrounding air, while the proteins are progressively concentrated at the aireliquid interface. Stage 2 represented the gelation of the surface, marked by the beginning of buckling of the droplet at t B .…”

Surface composition of industrial spray-dried milk powders. 2. Effects of spray drying conditions on the surface composition

“…Fat accumulated on the surface of the drying droplets may be responsible for skin formation, and lactose and protein may be responsible for crust formation. Kentish et al(2005) confirmed that the skin represents an accumulation of fat molecules.…”

Modeling the heating uniformity contributed by a rotating turntable in microwave ovens

“…Experimental studies have essentially focussed on using microwave energy for various food processes like heating (Dahl, Matthews, & Lund, 1981), drying (Drouzas, Tsami, & Saravacos, 1999;Wang & Xi, 2005), freeze drying (Wang & Shi, 1999), thawing (Taher & Farid, 2001) and looking at final food quality and changes in chemical (Welt & Tong, 1993) and other properties (Kentish, Davidson, Hassan, & Bloore, 2005) of the products due to microwave application. Additionally, researchers have explored different methods to measure temperatures during microwave heating ranging from the use of thermal cameras (Bengtsson & Lycke, 1969) in the past to magnetic resonance imaging (MR1) (Knoerzer et al, 2006;Nott & Hall, 2005) more recently.…”