Microplastic sources, formation, toxicity and remediation: a review

Abstract

Microplastic pollution is becoming a major issue for human health due to the recent discovery of microplastics in most ecosystems. Here, we review the sources, formation, occurrence, toxicity and remediation methods of microplastics. We distinguish ocean-based and land-based sources of microplastics. Microplastics have been found in biological samples such as faeces, sputum, saliva, blood and placenta. Cancer, intestinal, pulmonary, cardiovascular, infectious and inflammatory diseases are induced or mediated by microplastics. Microplastic exposure during pregnancy and maternal period is also discussed. Remediation methods include coagulation, membrane bioreactors, sand filtration, adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, electrocoagulation and magnetic separation. Control strategies comprise reducing plastic usage, behavioural change, and using biodegradable plastics. Global plastic production has risen dramatically over the past 70 years to reach 359 million tonnes. China is the world's top producer, contributing 17.5% to global production, while Turkey generates the most plastic waste in the Mediterranean region, at 144 tonnes per day. Microplastics comprise 75% of marine waste, with land-based sources responsible for 80–90% of pollution, while ocean-based sources account for only 10–20%. Microplastics induce toxic effects on humans and animals, such as cytotoxicity, immune response, oxidative stress, barrier attributes, and genotoxicity, even at minimal dosages of 10 μg/mL. Ingestion of microplastics by marine animals results in alterations in gastrointestinal tract physiology, immune system depression, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, differential gene expression, and growth inhibition. Furthermore, bioaccumulation of microplastics in the tissues of aquatic organisms can have adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem, with potential transmission of microplastics to humans and birds. Changing individual behaviours and governmental actions, such as implementing bans, taxes, or pricing on plastic carrier bags, has significantly reduced plastic consumption to 8–85% in various countries worldwide. The microplastic minimisation approach follows an upside-down pyramid, starting with prevention, followed by reducing, reusing, recycling, recovering, and ending with disposal as the least preferable option.

Artificial intelligence for waste management in smart cities: a review

“…To address these issues, governments and organizations have implemented waste management strategies such as recycling, composting, reusing, using renewable energy, and adopting green technologies. Moreover, public education and awareness campaigns can help reduce the amount of waste generated and encourage individuals to make more sustainable choices (Osman et al 2023 ).…”

“…There is currently insufficient capability in the world’s waste management systems to securely dispose of or recycle all waste plastics, which inevitably increases the number of waste plastics dumped into the environment (Osman et al 2023 ). Each year, the seas are thought to receive 8 million tonnes of microplastics and 1.5 million tonnes of main microplastics (Lau et al 2020 ).…”

“…The input factors of particle size (millimeters) allow for the classification of the composition of various plastic types, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate, in the research (Osman et al 2023 ). Additionally, the factors included the ashless chemical components of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine.…”

Fast Detection and Classification of Microplastics below 10 μm Using CNN with Raman Spectroscopy

“…The proliferation of microplastics in the natural environment has emerged as a significant environmental concern due to its potential ecological impact. − Consequently, there has been an increasing need for the development of comprehensive methodologies to facilitate large-scale analysis and characterization of these minute synthetic polymer particles. , Traditional mass-based techniques, , while commonly used, are inherently destructive and incapable of providing data regarding particle size, which is crucial in assessing their environmental implications.…”

Investigating the Impact of Microplastics on Fish Muscle Cell Proliferation and Differentiation: Enhancing Food Safety in Cultivated Meat Production

“…Microplastics, tiny fragments of plastic less than 5 millimeters in size, have garnered significant attention due to their ubiquity in the environment and the potential risks they pose to human health (Lim, 2021; Lwanga et al, 2022; Osman et al, 2023). Upon ingested, these particles can traverse the gastrointestinal tract, and some evidence suggests that smaller micro- and nanoplastic particles may even penetrate tissues, entering the circulatory and lymphatic systems (Campanale et al, 2020; Fournier et al, 2023; Hirt & Body-Malapel, 2020; Jiang et al, 2020; Kannan & Vimalkumar, 2021; Li et al, 2023; Ramsperger et al, 2023; Yee et al, 2021).…”