Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods

Alimentary and Pharmaceutical Approach to Natural Antimicrobials against Clostridioides difficile Gastrointestinal Infection

“…Natural antimicrobials extracted from vegetable materials (fruits, seeds, grains, leaves, roots, and vegetables) or by-products are representing an innovative and sustainable pathway to fight against human clinical and foodborne pathogens [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Effectively, natural vegetable raw materials (and extracted/processed products) have demonstrated antimicrobial potential against C. difficile .…”

“…Among the main disadvantages associated with antibiotic therapies in CDI management is the negative effect on normal microbiome of the host, which reduces a wide spectrum of protective microbiota (short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) producers and carbohydrate degraders such as Eubacterium Hallii , Fusicatenibacter , several Enterococci , Ruminococcus gnavus , and Lachnoclostridium ) at the gastrointestinal level. It also reduces complete absorption of antibiotic from the intestinal tract, thereby restricting its concentration in the colon [ 36 ]. The International Human Microbiome Consortium and the National Institute of Health’s Human Microbiome Project (HMP) are undertaking research to explain how microbiome could play a critical role in human health and disease.…”

“…Algae compounds have shown antibacterial potential against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms [ 36 , 69 ]. The antimicrobial potential of algae materials is based on the (i) type and algae matrix source (e.g., different algae taxonomic groups, culture conditions, seasonal harvest, and accumulation of bioactives), (ii) structural chemical diversity of compounds, (iii) molecular weight of compounds, (iv) type of extraction and purification methods employed, and (v) modification and way of administration [ 23 , 54 ].…”

“…The antimicrobial potential of algae materials is based on the (i) type and algae matrix source (e.g., different algae taxonomic groups, culture conditions, seasonal harvest, and accumulation of bioactives), (ii) structural chemical diversity of compounds, (iii) molecular weight of compounds, (iv) type of extraction and purification methods employed, and (v) modification and way of administration [ 23 , 54 ]. Among the most relevant antimicrobial bioactives from macro- and microalgae are phlorotannins, laminarin, sargafuran, peyssonoic acid, bromophycolides, neurymenolides, acetylmajapolene, phycobiliproteins, scytonemines, carotenoids, polysaccharides, phytohormones, cyanotoxins, phytol, fucosterol, neophytadiene, palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acids [ 36 , 37 , 63 , 67 , 69 ].…”

“…Among the studied bacteria, some of the Gram-positive bacteria that are sensitive to algae compounds are strains of Bacillus subtilis , Bacillus cereus , Staphylococcus aureus , Enterococcus faecalis , and Micrococcus luteus , while the Gram-negative bacteria include Klebsiella pneumoniae , Serratia marcescens , Escherichia coli , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Salmonella Typhimurium, and Vibrio cholerae . Clinical human pathogens, such as P. aeruginosa , E. coli , S. aureus , E. faecalis , group B Streptococcus (GBS), and Proteus mirabilis , are among pathogens that most frequently affect hospitalized patients, and all of them have demonstrated sensitivity to exposure to natural compounds from marine algae sources [ 36 , 37 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]. Five microalgae cultures ( Chlorella minutissima, Tetraselmis chui, Nannochloropsis sp., Arthrospira platensis , and Isochrysis sp.)…”