Micro- and Nanoplastics in Environment: Degradation, Detection, and Ecological Impact

Current Concerns about Microplastics and Nanoplastics: A Brief Overview

“…Size Range Source MACROPLASTICS ≥2.5 cm [7][8][9] "Whole" objects or fragments of packaging and various objects in polymeric material, mainly due to braking processes or direct, intentional release MESOPLASTICS 5 mm-2.5 cm [7][8][9] As above PRIMARY MICROPLASTICS ≤5 mm [8,9], 1-5 mm [7,10] Scrubbers in cosmetics, liquid soaps, paints, abrasive products; pharmaceuticals; pellets; textile fibers; release of particles and fibers from production and maintenance operations of objects made of polymeric material SECONDARY MICROPLASTICS ≤5 mm [8,9], 1-5 mm [7,10] Coming from macroplastics and mesoplastics (but also from primary microplastics) essentially through environmental degradation processes: thermal, thermo-oxidative, photo-oxidative, biological; above all, from UV radiation; also mechanical, like washing and drying of fabrics, or tire abrasion MINIMICROPLASTICS 1 µm-1 mm [11] As for microplastics in general (and secondary plastics in particular) NANOPLASTICS 1 nm-100 nm [7,10,12], <1 µm [11] According to some: the same of microplastics in general and primary plastics in particular, so much that "paints, adhesives, drugs, electronics, and new 3D printing technologies" are cited [13,14]; according to others: mainly like secondary microplastics, especially washing and drying of fabrics, deterioration of tires and other products such as polystyrene [15,16] or even almost exclusively fabrics and tires [12,17]…”

“…Significant concerns have been raised about the various effects of micro and nanoplastics on human health [ 12 , 26 , 27 , 28 ], although there is no universal agreement on them, also because the reliability of in vitro models is somewhat questioned [ 29 ]. Nanoplastics, in particular, have been shown to have the ability to bioaccumulate and invade the food chain [ 12 , 30 , 31 ].…”

“…Significant concerns have been raised about the various effects of micro and nanoplastics on human health [ 12 , 26 , 27 , 28 ], although there is no universal agreement on them, also because the reliability of in vitro models is somewhat questioned [ 29 ]. Nanoplastics, in particular, have been shown to have the ability to bioaccumulate and invade the food chain [ 12 , 30 , 31 ]. While there are very limited human data, there is evidence from animal studies, but most of them focus only on specific types of micro- and nanoplastics, while some common types remain substantially uninvestigated; furthermore, there is still a lack of standardized methods for correct definition and detection of microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) [ 27 , 32 ].…”

“…While there are very limited human data, there is evidence from animal studies, but most of them focus only on specific types of micro- and nanoplastics, while some common types remain substantially uninvestigated; furthermore, there is still a lack of standardized methods for correct definition and detection of microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) [ 27 , 32 ]. In brief, it can be stated that methods and techniques to detect, identify, and monitor microplastics and nanoplastics include gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy [ 12 ]. Several methods of detection, identification and quantification of MP and NP are available and are accurately reported, along with their limitations, in a review by Cai et al [ 33 ], to which it should be referred for further details.…”

“…However, the exponentially increasing utilization of plastic items has been posing downsides and threats in terms of environmental impacts [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Due to unsatisfactory (and, in some cases, insufficient) recycling procedures and rates, and the well-known lack of biodegradability of traditional plastics [ 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 ], the persistence of plastic-based items leads to the formation of macroplastics, mesoplastics and microplastics, depending on the size and the source [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ], with multiple and concerning environmental impacts, affecting both fresh and marine waters [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], soils [ 23 , 24 ], and air [ 20 , 21 , 24 ].…”