Methods of Ensuring Energy Security with the Use of Hard Coal—The Case of Poland

Abstract

In this article, the authors present methods based on hard coal that may ensure energy security for European Union countries. The research was carried out based on the example of Poland. The main reason for which coal is being gradually withdrawn from the energy mixes in EU countries is its negative impact on the natural environment and the health of citizens and economic factors related to domestic fuel production. The authors propose the creation of energy–chemical clusters as a solution to these problems. It is assumed that the clusters would operate following the principles of the circular economy. We also propose methods for the optimization of the production and transport costs within the cluster. Then, we conduct profitability analysis of the proposed waste management methods. At the level of the designated cluster, using network algorithms enabled us to reduce the transport costs by at least 50%. It is possible to obtain rare earth elements (REEs) worth USD 22,970 from 1 Mg of ash. At the level of the analyzed cluster, this leads to an annual profit of USD 3.5 billion. The profit related to algae production at the cluster level is approximately USD 2.5 bn.

Analysis of the Impact of Clean Coal Technologies on the Share of Coal in Poland’s Energy Mix

“…For this purpose, it was first necessary to determine measures and explanatory variables that would make it possible to verify the existence of such a relationship. Based on the authors' experience [27,29] and literature review [2,3,5,6,9,10,12,25,34,45], the set of indicators presented in Table 1 was adopted for analysis.…”

“…The mixture of gases produced in the coal combustion process constitutes the feed solution, which, after passing through the membrane, is separated into permeate and retentate. Retentate is a mixture of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon oxides, but also sulphur and nitrogen oxides), which can be additionally separated in order to be captured, stored or further processed and used [29]. Despite numerous advantages, membranes also have disadvantages, mainly chemical and mechanical resistance, as well as the need to regenerate membranes [30].…”

Cluster Analysis of the EU-27 Countries in Light of the Guiding Principles of the European Green Deal, with Particular Emphasis on Poland

“…According to the authors, it is necessary to redefine the priorities and promoted energy sources. As the authors have suggested in their previous publications [22,54], and as shown by recent events, basing the EU's energy security on raw materials imported from politically unstable regions of the world is very risky. This applies not only to oil and gas imported from Russia, but also Arab countries.…”

“…The authors believe that CCU is an even more advantageous solution. This is because it enables the generation of additional profit through the management of carbon dioxide and its use, for example, during the oil extraction or biomass production process [21,22]. For this purpose, the authors proposed a membrane technology that allows the separation and thus purification of the gas mixture formed during the combustion of fossil fuels, including coal, natural gas and crude oil.…”

The Use of the MQTT Protocol in Measurement, Monitoring and Control Systems as Part of the Implementation of Energy Management Systems

“…In 2007, EU leaders set a target of reducing the EU's annual energy consumption by 20% by 2020. In 2018, the Clean Energy for All Europeans package set a new target of reducing energy consumption by at least 32.5% by 2030 [2][3][4][5][6]. Ensuring energy efficiency is increasingly recognized not only as a means of ensuring a sustainable energy supply, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing security of supply and reducing energy import expenses but also as promoting the EU's competitiveness.…”