Metacognition in education.

Abstract

Descartes famously stated, "I think, therefore I am," articulating an inherent relationship between thinking and being. Metacognition is commonly conceived to be thinking about thinking; perhaps metacognitive processes create the opportunity for an analogous increase in self-awareness of what it means "to be" as well. Metacognitive strategies require a level of consciousness not just about what is being learned but also about how it is being learned and an awareness of having learned it. It is the use of the brain to determine what the brain itself is doing ( Metcalfe, 2008 ), or the I thinking about itself, arguably expanding the sense of what that "I" is.Educational psychologists are increasingly realizing that this expanded understanding of learning and the self is linked to both developmental potential and learned strategies. Developmentally, as children gain increasing awareness of themselves as unique people, similar to yet different from all others, they are more capable of understanding who they are as learners, how they think and learn, and how they come to know. Educational and psychological research in the past decade has found that metacognitive capacity starts earlier than was initially realized ( Kuhn, 2000 ;Whitebread, Bingham, Grau, Pasternak, & Sangster, 2007 ); is more amenable to educational intervention than was previously thought Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 2009 ); can be taught to a wide range of learners ( Bulgren, 2006 ;Harris, Reid, & Graham, 2004 ); and is both inherently contextual ( Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, & Affl erbach, 2006 ) and a unique capacity that is distinguishable from intelligence, cognitive processes, and motivation ( Sternberg, 1990 ;Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004 ). Educators across the world are fi nding that understanding and teaching metacognitive strategies in a variety of domains and contexts is making a difference in student learning, to the extent that an international scholarly journal devoted to this topic was launched in 2006 ( Metacognition and Learning published by Springer). Although there is growing consensus that metacognition is a signifi cant factor in successful learning ( McCormick, 2003 ), there are nonetheless important differences, albeit subtle, in how metacognition is defi ned by researchers and educators.We begin by tracing the evolution of metacognition, particularly as defi ned and studied in educational contexts. Whenever possible, we emphasize applied metacognitive research, how this research can inform educational professionals and researchers, and how the principles derived from the research may play out in schools. The chapter is organized developmentally, with separate sections devoted to metacognitive research focusing on various age groups: preschool and elementary school students, middle school and high school students, and college students and adult learners. Moving beyond the classroom context, we articulate ways in which those providing services to students and schools (e.g., school psychologists, school counselors, and spe...

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