Metabolic syndrome: an update on diagnostic criteria, pathogenesis, and genetic links

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), today a major global public health problem, is a cluster of clinical, metabolic, and biochemical abnormalities, such as central adiposity, hypertension, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemias. These MetS-related traits significantly increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, adverse cardiac events, stroke, and hepatic steatosis. The pathogenesis of MetS is multifactorial, with the interplay of environmental, nutritional, and genetic factors. Chronic low-grade inflammation together with visceral adipose tissue, adipocyte dysfunction, and insulin resistance plays a major role in the progression of the syndrome by impairing lipid and glucose homeostasis in insulin-sensitive tissues, such as the liver, muscle, and adipocytes. Adipose-derived inflammatory cytokines and non-esterified fatty acids establish the link between central obesity IR, inflammation, and atherogenesis. Various studies have reported an association between MetS and related traits with single-nucleotide polymorphisms of different susceptibility genes. Modulation of cytokine levels, pro-oxidants, and disturbed energy homeostasis, in relation to the genetic variations, is described in this review of the recent literature, which also provides updated data regarding the epidemiology, diagnostic criteria, and pathogenesis of MetS.

Metabolomics Elucidates Dose-Dependent Molecular Beneficial Effects of Hesperidin Supplementation in Rats Fed an Obesogenic Diet

“…A core clinical features of MetS is central obesity, as it usually precedes the emergence of other MetS risk factors [2,3]. As expected, CAF feeding resulted in increased body weight, fat mass, and adiposity index when compared to a STD diet.…”

“…Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined as a clustering of interrelated cardio-metabolic risk factors, including abdominal obesity, insulin resistance (IR), hypertension, and dyslipidaemia, which increases the risk of developing both cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) [1][2][3]. The MetS is highly prevalent worldwide (about 20-30% of all adults), and it is increasing in relation to the increasing incidence of obesity and T2D.…”

A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, Insulin Resistance, and Microbiome on the Diagnosis of Barrett’s Esophagus

“…MetS is a syndrome that contains more than three-fifths of medical conditions, including AO, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, high serum triglycerides, and low serum high-density lipoprotein. The diagnostic criteria for MetS mainly focus on the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) and the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) [16,17]. IR is considered as a pathological condition in which cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin [18].…”

Dietary chia seeds (Salvia hispanica) improve acute dyslipidemia and steatohepatitis in rats

“…The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is currently a major public health problems worldwide that comprises metabolic abnormalities such as obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, dyslipidemias, oxidative stress, and inflammatory states (Zafar, Khaliq, Ahmad, Manzoor, & Lone, ). Dyslipidemia is an abnormality characterized by high plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (Chol), low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C), and triglycerides (TG), and a low level of high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‐C) (Taheri et al, ).…”

“…Dyslipidemia is an abnormality characterized by high plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (Chol), low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C), and triglycerides (TG), and a low level of high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‐C) (Taheri et al, ). The MetS has been strongly associated with non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which has become the most common origin of chronic liver disease in the world (Li, Zhang, & Zhan, ; Shetty, Hsu, Manka, & Syn, ; Takahashi & Fukusato, ; Zafar et al, ). NAFLD is classified into (a) simple hepatosteatosis, which is distinguished by micro‐ and macrovacuolation of fat (TG and Chol accumulation) in hepatocytes, and (b) non‐alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), in which both necro‐inflammation and hepatosteatosis occur.…”