Metabolic programming of obesity by energy restriction during the perinatal period: different outcomes depending on gender and period, type and severity of restriction

Abstract

Epidemiological studies in humans and controlled intervention studies in animals have shown that nutritional programming in early periods of life is a phenomenon that affects metabolic and physiological functions throughout life. The phenotypes of health or disease are hence the result of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors, starting right from conception. In this sense, gestation and lactation are disclosed as critical periods. Continuous food restriction during these stages may lead to permanent adaptations with lasting effects on the metabolism of the offspring and may influence the propensity to develop different chronic diseases associated with obesity. However, the different outcomes of these adaptations on later health may depend on factors such as the type, duration, period, and severity of the exposure to energy restriction conditions, and they are, in part, gender specific. A better understanding of the factors and mechanisms involved in metabolic programming, and their effects, may contribute significantly to the prevention of obesity, which is considered to be one of the major health concerns of our time. Here, the different outcomes of maternal food restriction during gestation and lactation in the metabolic health of offspring, as well as potential mechanisms underlying these effects are reviewed.

Decreased Kv1.5 expression in intrauterine growth retardation rats with exaggerated pulmonary hypertension

“…Our study and that of Rexhaj et al differed in that they restricted maternal food during mid and late pregnancy, whereas we began intervention from an early period. The age-related development of body size or degree of food reduction could explain the difference in results (26), and the findings might also suggest that dietary restriction in later pregnancy could be an important determinant of PA development in the offspring. However, future studies are required to more precisely define how and when maternal food restriction affects pulmonary vascular dysfunction in the offspring.…”

Effect of Fetal and Infant Malnutrition on Metabolism in Older Age

“…Alterations in the development and function of the hypothalamic pathways and systems, which are involved in the regulation of energy and homeostasis, have been detected in animals experiencing protein-calorie malnourishment during gestation [6]. Vickers et al [7] were the first to demonstrate that food intake in offspring from undernourished mothers was significantly higher than in controls and increased further with advanced age.…”

“…Besides lower birth weight, offspring of undernourished rodents show significant alterations in organ morphology and function than offspring of a nonmalnourished control group [6]. There is evidence that key organs such as the kidneys or the liver are smaller in malnourished rodents [7].…”

“…The authors proposed that fetal undernutrition induces impaired neuroendocrine regulation in which hyperinsulinism, hyperleptinemia, resistance to insulin, and leptin lead to hyperphagia and obesity in adult life. Preference for fat-rich food in the offspring of calorie-restricted mothers [6] is also a relevant mechanism. Besides the effect on the central nervous system, there is evidence about peripheral effects, specifically in relation with the adipose tissue and gut innervations [6].…”

“…Preference for fat-rich food in the offspring of calorie-restricted mothers [6] is also a relevant mechanism. Besides the effect on the central nervous system, there is evidence about peripheral effects, specifically in relation with the adipose tissue and gut innervations [6]. …”