Membrane Vesicle Release in Bacteria, Eukaryotes, and Archaea: a Conserved yet Underappreciated Aspect of Microbial Life

Abstract

<jats:title>ABSTRACT</jats:title><jats:p>Interaction of microbes with their environment depends on features of the dynamic microbial surface throughout cell growth and division. Surface modifications, whether used to acquire nutrients, defend against other microbes, or resist the pressures of a host immune system, facilitate adaptation to unique surroundings. The release of bioactive membrane vesicles (MVs) from the cell surface is conserved across microbial life, in bacteria, archaea, fungi, and parasites. MV production occurs not only<jats:italic>in vitro</jats:italic>but also<jats:italic>in vivo</jats:italic>during infection, underscoring the influence of these surface organelles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis through delivery of enzymes, toxins, communication signals, and antigens recognized by the innate and adaptive immune systems. Derived from a variety of organisms that span kingdoms of life and called by several names (membrane vesicles, outer membrane vesicles [OMVs], exosomes, shedding microvesicles, etc.), the conserved functions and mechanistic strategies of MV release are similar, including the use of ESCRT proteins and ESCRT protein homologues to facilitate these processes in archaea and eukaryotic microbes. Although forms of MV release by different organisms share similar visual, mechanistic, and functional features, there has been little comparison across microbial life. This underappreciated conservation of vesicle release, and the resulting functional impact throughout the tree of life, explored in this review, stresses the importance of vesicle-mediated processes throughout biology.</jats:p>

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Outer Membrane Vesicles Are Internalized in Human Host Cells and Trigger NOD1- and NOD2-Dependent NF-κB Activation

“…MVs have also several defensive functions, including a role in antimicrobial peptide resistance (6,10). Reports that membrane vesicles are produced in vivo during infection, that patient sera show reactivity to MV antigens, and that circulating MVs cause sepsis in animal models together support the idea that such vesicles may have a pivotal role in effecting a toxic response in the host, beyond that provided by the infecting microorganism itself (11)(12)(13). In chronic localized infections, such as periodontitis, a common dental disease resulting in irreversible alveolar bone and attachment loss around teeth and eventual tooth loss (14), membrane vesicles may represent an important source of inflammatory stimulants both locally and systemically upon entry into the circulation (15).…”

Origin of life: LUCA and extracellular membrane vesicles (EMVs)

“…It has been shown that bacteria, produce EMVs not only in the laboratory but also in biofilms and during infections (Schooling & Beveridge 2006;Deatherage & Cookson 2012). However, until recently the presence of EMVs in natural environments has been largely ignored.…”

Membrane vesicles in natural environments: a major challenge in viral ecology

“…In particular, it has been known for decades that bacteria, including marine species, produce MVs in the laboratory but also in biofilms or during infections (Schooling and Beveridge, 2006;Deatherage and Cookson, 2012). However, until recently, the presence of MVs in natural environments has been largely overlooked by molecular ecologists.…”

“…The production of extracellular membrane vesicles (hereafter called MVs) is a universal cellular feature, common to the three domains of life (Deatherage and Cookson, 2012). In particular, it has been known for decades that bacteria, including marine species, produce MVs in the laboratory but also in biofilms or during infections (Schooling and Beveridge, 2006;Deatherage and Cookson, 2012).…”