Melanogenesis, Its Regulatory Process, and Insights on Biomedical, Biotechnological, and Pharmacological Potentials of Melanin as Antiviral Biochemical

Abstract

Melanin is s most widely distributed pigment and is found in bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Melanogenesis is under complex regulatory control by multiple agents interacting through pathways activated by hormonal and receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms. There are about 20 genes that are involved in the biochemical pathway of melanogenesis and its regulation, which include: tyrosinase, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, melanocortin1 receptor, adenylate cyclase, protein kinase A. Human melanogenesis regulatory proteins such as MAPK1, CREB3, and CREBP, have binary interaction with the protein of herpesvirus, hepatitis C virus, Human immunodeficiency virus type 1, Simian virus 40, and Human adenovirus A and C. Melanin is a double-edged sword in host-pathogen interaction (e.g., human-bacteria and/or fungi interaction). The inducers of upregulation of melanogenesis include fluvoxamine, famotidine, terbutaline, heliotrine, sirolimus, dicoumarol, Prestwick-860, carbimazole, (-)-MK-801, rilmenidine, hydrastine hydrochloride, haloperidol, scopolamine N-oxide, raubasine, and dihydroergocristine. In melanogenesis, GSK3B, CSNK2A, MAPK1, MAPK3, MAPK14, ERK1, and HIPK2 were the major kinases, while RUNX1, GATA1, and REST, SUN12, and RCOR1 were the major transcription factors. This study has reviewed the melanogenesis pathway, its regulations as well as applications to viral infection. The antiviral activity of melanin and its complex in the presence of antibacterial and antifungal compounds should be investigated to further provide insight for biomedical, biotechnological, and pharmacological applications.

Potential Role of Oleanolic and Ursolic Acids from Food and Plant Materials as Natural Ingredients for the Cosmetic Industry: A Review

“…The development of melanocytes occurs predominantly in the basal layer of the skin epidermis and hair follicles. , These melanocytes contain melanosomes, subcellular organelles where melanin pigments are synthesized. These cells can transfer melanin to neighboring cells, generally keratinocytes; , this pigment is characterized by its ability to absorb visible and UV light, protecting DNA against solar radiation. However, different intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the onset and increase of the melanogenesis mechanism.…”

“…Thus, the accumulation of TYR, TRP-1, and TRP-2 produces dermatological disorders such as hyperpigmentation, actinic damage, or melisma through oxidative stress. Its inhibition, and that of the agents involved in melanogenesis, are targets of dermatological and cosmetic innovations . In addition, these enzymes participate in a chain chemical reaction which results in the biosynthesis of the two melanosome pigments: eumelanin and pheomelanin. , …”

“…Its inhibition, and that of the agents involved in melanogenesis, are targets of dermatological and cosmetic innovations. 98 In addition, these enzymes participate in a chain chemical reaction which results in the biosynthesis of the two melanosome pigments: eumelanin and pheomelanin. 94,103…”