Medical views on the death by crucifixion of Jesus Christ

Abstract

The death of Jesus Christ remains a pivotal moment in world history and a symbol of love, mercy, and courage across the globe. Yet for centuries, the manner of Jesus' death has remained a subject of controversy in academic and medical circles. Forensic pathologists and clinicians have argued for several hypotheses concerning Jesus' death, including pulmonary embolism, cardiac rupture, suspension trauma, asphyxiation, fatal stab wound, and shock. This article surveys a broad range of medical and other specialist views regarding Jesus' experience on the cross, concluding that asphyxiation or asphyxiation-dominant theories have emerged as the consensus position regarding the cause of Jesus' death. Two features of this article are significant. First, it provides a rich resource of different medical opinions regarding the effects of Jesus' crucifixion. Second, and more importantly, the survey results show that, perhaps less similar to crucifixion in general, there is a growing consensus regarding Jesus' cause of death by medical professionals. A table maps these results, summarizing for those in the medical field as well as historians and theologians what medical professionals consider to be the cause of Jesus' death.

Did Jesus Die by Suffocation?: An Appraisal of the Evidence

“…Nevertheless, recent authors have stated that asphyxiation has reached consensus status among medical authors as the cause of death in crucifixion (Bordes et al 2020; Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021; Habermas and Shaw 2021; Ingham and Duhig 2022). For instance“This article surveys a broad range of medical specialist views regarding Jesus’ experience on the cross, concluding that asphyxiation or asphyxiation-dominant theories have emerged as the consensus position regarding the cause of Jesus’ death” (Habermas and Shaw 2021)…”

“…That article simply tallies results of a literature search that found that in 40 articles and books written by physicians proposing a specific cause of death in crucifixion, 28 (70%) stated that asphyxiation was the primary cause (Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021, Table 1). A recent find of a 2nd century A.D. skeleton in England with a nail through a heel bone described as belonging to a crucifixion victim stated that death in crucifixion “was usually due to asphyxia as the chest muscles became exhausted…” (Ingham and Duhig 2022, 28)…”

“…Other medical professionals have carried on the promotion of the asphyxiation theory to the present day without proposing evidence to support it (Retief and Cilliers 2003; Papaloucas 2004; Bordes et al 2020; Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021).…”

“…Nevertheless, recent authors have stated that asphyxiation has reached consensus status among medical authors as the cause of death in crucifixion (Bordes et al 2020;Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021;Ingham and Duhig 2022). For instance "This article surveys a broad range of medical specialist views regarding Jesus' experience on the cross, concluding that asphyxiation or asphyxiation-dominant theories have emerged as the consensus position regarding the cause of Jesus' death" That article simply tallies results of a literature search that found that in 40 articles and books written by physicians proposing a specific cause of death in crucifixion, 28 (70%) stated that asphyxiation was the primary cause (Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021, Table 1).…”

“…While it is true that crucifixion reenactment studies have "limited relevance to genuine cases" of crucifixion (Maslen and Mitchell 2006) and that they are open to "many criticisms" (Habermas, Kopel, and Shaw 2021), "limited" relevance does not mean "no" relevance.…”