Medical representations of the body in Japan: Gender, class, and discourse in the eighteenth century

Abstract

This paper examines the introduction of European anatomy to Japan via translated medical texts in the eighteenth century. It argues how detailed illustrations of the body found in the texts presented a new discourse by which to objectify and control the body, and new metaphors and analogies by which to view society. Inspection of bodily parts through dissection and the reading of anatomical texts marked a transition to Western forms of science, to 'reliable' knowledge which was certified by the social status of the author. By looking at one important text, the Kaitai shinsho [A New Book of Anatomy] (1774), it will be shown that changes in representations of the body reflect the social construction of gender.

The evolution of the study of anatomy in Japan

“…14). Low (1996) noted that one Japanese physician mentioned that he had seen various internal body structures and did not know what they were, but that they had appeared in all of the bodies that he had seen dissected.…”

“…As mentioned, although human dissection was occasionally allowed in Japan (for the purpose of confirming the anatomy as described by Chinese medicine), it was generally considered contrary to Confucian teachings, because it damaged the body given by one's parents (Bowers, 1973;Low, 1996). Shintoism also associated those handling the dead with impurity.…”

“…Bowers (1973) noted that Yamawaki used Johan Vesling's (1598-1649) text Syntagma Anatomicum as a reference guide. Low (1996) observed that Yamawaki participated in dissections as early as 1754, but that he was unable to persuade other Japanese physicians to free themselves from many erroneous Chinese perceptions of the human body. However, Ogawa (1975) stated that some individuals defended Yamawaki's observations; in fact, a commemorative stone marks the location of Yamawaki's dissection in Kyoto (Michel, 2000).…”

“…This caste of pariahs was considered despicable and unclean by Buddhist Japan, and they acted as butchers, tanners, scavengers, and ''dissectors'' (Durant, 1954;Bowers, 1973). Low (1996) elaborated that the dissections mediated by the eta were carried out primarily on beheaded criminals, were hardly experimental in nature, and thus did not advance science. Instead, these deeds were often for monetary gain, to collect human bile for medicinal purposes.…”

“…In 1774, he and his colleagues, including Ryotaku Maeno (1723-1803), Hoshu Katsuragawa (1750-1808), Genjo Ishikawa (1744-1816), and Junnan Nakagawa (1739-1786), translated the 1734 Dutch anatomical text Ontleekundige Tafelen by Johann Adam Kulmus (1689-1745) (originally published in 1722 as Anatomische Tabellen and dedicated to the Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch, 1638-1731). After 11 draft translations (and approval by shogunate officials and court nobles, to ensure that there would be no significant political repercussions), they published the translation as the Kaitai-Shinsho (A New Book of Anatomy) (Huard, 1958;Sakula, 1985;Low, 1996) (Figs. 7-9).…”