Media Development without Press Freedom: Lee Kuan Yew's Singapore

Understandings and practices of freedom of expression and press freedom in Pakistan: ethnography of Karachi journalistic environment

“…However, most of the previous studies of press freedom emphasised the institutional perspective of journalism while conceptualising and measuring it. Thus, the prior inquiries of press freedom emphasised the impact of environmental constraints on the journalists' work in diverse contexts (Nixon, 1960(Nixon, , 1965Stein, 1966;Lowenstein, 1970;Kent, 1972;Weaver, 1977Weaver, , 1985Niazi, 1986;Hachten, 1989;Ali, 1997;Jabbar, 1997;Price, 2002;Rozumilowicz, 2002;Amin, 2010;Popeseu, 2010).…”

“…Therefore, it attempts to justify the freedom from large-scale constraints. Previously, many scholars recognised this fact, which resulted in the descriptions of a free press with regard to the environmental constraints and factors (Nixon, 1960(Nixon, , 1965Stein, 1966;Lowenstein, 1970;Kent, 1972;Weaver, 1977Weaver, , 1985Hachten, 1989;Powe, 1991;Price, 2002;Rozumilowicz, 2002) 24 .…”

“…With regard to press freedom, a number of prior studies looked at social, political, cultural, economic and legal perspectives as 'factors' instead of 'constraints' (Nixon, 1960;Weaver 1985;Hachten, 1989;Lee, 1991;Rozumilowicz, 2002). For example, Nixon (1960) found a positive correlation between press freedom and social factors such as the per capital income or living standard (Nixon 1960); literacy rate and mass media development particularly the circulation of newspapers and TV or radio reach in countries (Nixon 1960;Weaver 1985).…”

“…For example, Nixon (1960) found a positive correlation between press freedom and social factors such as the per capital income or living standard (Nixon 1960); literacy rate and mass media development particularly the circulation of newspapers and TV or radio reach in countries (Nixon 1960;Weaver 1985). However, studies in some Asian countries like Singapore and Taiwan revealed that high income did not translate into the improved levels of press freedom (Hachten, 1989;Lee, 1991). These studies also unpacked that the media's growth and national development initiatives did not ensure a high level of government's accountability, suggesting a negative correlation between press freedom and national development.…”

“…The journalists' feedbacks to the research question three of this study identified two important social factors as indicators of press freedom, namely: the 'system of social justice' and 'literacy rate'. Previously, some scholars examined the link between media freedom and literacy rate while conceptualising press freedom (Nixon, 1960;Hachten, 1989). However, the system of social justice appeared as a 'distinct social factor' to measure press freedom in Pakistan.…”