Mechanisms underlying performance impairments following prolonged static stretching without a comprehensive warm-up

Abstract

Whereas a variety of pre-exercise activities have been incorporated as part of a "warm-up" prior to work, combat, and athletic activities for millennia, the inclusion of static stretching (SS) within a warm-up has lost favour in the last 25 years. Research emphasised the possibility of SSinduced impairments in subsequent performance following prolonged stretching without proper dynamic warm-up activities. Proposed mechanisms underlying stretch-induced deficits include both neural (i.e. decreased voluntary activation, persistent inward current effects on motoneurone excitability) and morphological (i.e. changes in the force-length relationship, decreased Ca 2+ sensitivity, alterations in parallel elastic component) factors. Psychological influences such as a mental energy deficit and nocebo effects could also adversely affect performance. However, significant practical limitations exist within published studies, e.g. long stretching durations, stretching exercises with little task specificity, lack of warm-up before/after stretching, testing performed immediately after stretch completion, and risk of investigator and participant bias.Recent research indicates that appropriate durations of static stretching performed within a full warm-up (i.e. aerobic activities before and task-specific dynamic stretching and intense physical activities after SS) have trivial effects on subsequent performance with some evidence of improved force output at longer muscle lengths. For conditions in which muscular force production is compromised by stretching, knowledge of the underlying mechanisms would aid development of mitigation strategies. However, these mechanisms are yet to be perfectly defined. More information is needed to better understand both the warm-up components and mechanisms that contribute to performance enhancements or impairments when SS is incorporated within a pre-activity warm-up.

The Accumulated Effects of Foam Rolling Combined with Stretching on Range of Motion and Physical Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…However, if dynamic stretching is applied, Behm et al (2016) reported mean increases in performance of 1.3%. Thus, performance changes following stretching depend on the stretch duration and stretching technique (Behm et al, 2016;Behm and Chaouachi, 2011;Behm et al, 2021a;Kay and Blazevich, 2012), and are also likely dependent on the muscles stretched (Konrad et al, 2021 . For foam rolling, there seems to be, at least, no detrimental effect on performance (Wiewelhove et al, 2019;Cheatham et al, 2015).…”

“…However, these results do not include a quantification of the effects based on a meta-analysis or include muscle groups other than the hamstrings. Moreover, since static stretching and dynamic stretching can lead to different acute changes in ROM (Amiri-Khorasani et al, 2011) and performance (Behm and Chaouachi, 2011;Behm et al, 2021a), vibration foam rolling might have a more pronounced effect on ROM compared to foam rolling without vibration (Wilke et al, 2020), so these two modalities should also be considered.…”

Strength Training versus Stretching for Improving Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

“…ROM is improved through increased stretch tolerance, augmented fascicle length and changes in pennation angle [ 17 ], as well as reduced tonic reflex activity [ 18 ]. Stretching is usually prescribed for increasing ROM in sports [ 19 , 20 ], clinical settings, such as chronic low back pain [ 21 ], rheumatoid arthritis [ 22 ], and exercise performance in general [ 23 ]. Stretching techniques, include static (active or passive), dynamic, or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), all of which can improve ROM [ 2 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ].…”

Local and Non-local Effects of Foam Rolling on Passive Soft Tissue Properties and Spinal Excitability

“…Previous studies (Krause et al, 2019;Wilke et al, 2019Wilke et al, , 2020Behm et al, 2020) have not only shown an immediate increase in range of motion (ROM) following foam rolling but also revealed the absence of changes in athletic performance (Macdonald et al, 2013;Behara and Jacobson, 2017). This is relevant because static stretching for more than 60 s can likely decrease muscle strength and athletic performance if performed isometrically (Kay and Blazevich, 2012;Behm et al, 2016Behm et al, , 2021. Although foam rolling appears to be a useful technique for athletes, its mechanisms remain a matter of debate.…”