Mechanisms of Transmission and Processing of Pain: A Narrative Review

Abstract

Knowledge about the mechanisms of transmission and the processing of nociceptive information, both in healthy and pathological states, has greatly expanded in recent years. This rapid progress is due to a multidisciplinary approach involving the simultaneous use of different branches of study, such as systems neurobiology, behavioral analysis, genetics, and cell and molecular techniques. This narrative review aims to clarify the mechanisms of transmission and the processing of pain while also taking into account the characteristics and properties of nociceptors and how the immune system influences pain perception. Moreover, several important aspects of this crucial theme of human life will be discussed. Nociceptor neurons and the immune system play a key role in pain and inflammation. The interactions between the immune system and nociceptors occur within peripheral sites of injury and the central nervous system. The modulation of nociceptor activity or chemical mediators may provide promising novel approaches to the treatment of pain and chronic inflammatory disease. The sensory nervous system is fundamental in the modulation of the host’s protective response, and understanding its interactions is pivotal in the process of revealing new strategies for the treatment of pain.

The Relationship between Executive Functions and Body Weight: Sex as a Moderating Variable

“…Overall, the prefrontal cortex plays a critical role in executive processes like attention, action planning, and working memory. Still, the prefrontal cortex relies on a delicate balance between excitatory glutamatergic neurons [ 108 , 109 ] and inhibitory GABAergic neurons to function properly [ 101 , 109 , 110 ]. Similarly, neurotransmitters such as dopamine, endogenous opioids [ 102 , 111 , 112 ], and acetylcholine [ 113 ] have been associated with proficient executive functioning.…”

Changes in serum levels of pain mediators in hemiplegic shoulder pain

“…SP also plays an essential role in oral and facial inflammatory pain (Zhang et al., 2019 ). IL‐6 and TNF‐α induce central nervous system glial cells to release proinflammatory cytokines TNF‐α, IL‐1β, and IL‐6 (Di Maio et al., 2023 ). TNF‐α, IL‐1β, and IL‐6 can further induce the production of COX‐2 and increase PGE2 (Zhao et al., 2022 ).…”

Whole Body Cryostimulation: A New Adjuvant Treatment in Central Sensitization Syndromes? An Expert Opinion

“…At the biological level, CS is characterised by an increase in excitatory neurotransmitters and synaptic efficacy, a reduction in the inhibitory function of descending pain pathways, a loss of inhibitory interneurons, and an alteration of supraspinal processes responsible for pain perception and in brain regions involved in emotional responses ( Figure 2 ) [ 3 , 35 ].…”

“…Central sensitization (CS) is a multifactorial etiopathogenetic condition involving an increase in the reactivity of nociceptive neurons and alterations in pain transmission and perception in the central nervous system [ 1 , 2 ]. It results in hyperexcitability to noxious and non-noxious stimuli that act on structural plasticity, and may sensitise the central nociceptive system [ 3 , 4 ]. When CS occurs, neurons in the spinal cord become more responsive to peripheral input, such as below-threshold stimuli that would not normally evoke a pain response [ 4 , 5 ].…”