Mechanisms of behavioral, atopic, and other reactions to artificial food colors in children

Abstract

This review examines the research on mechanisms by which artificial food colors (AFCs) and common foods may cause behavioral changes in children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Children with ADHD show excess inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Studies have shown that a subgroup of children (with or without ADHD) react adversely to challenges with AFCs. Many early studies found few children who reacted to challenges with 20-40 mg of AFCs. However, studies using at least 50 mg of AFCs showed a greater percentage of children who reacted to the challenge. Three types of potential mechanisms are explored: toxicological, antinutritional, and hypersensitivity. Suggestions for future studies in animals and/or children include dose studies as well as studies to determine the effects of AFCs on the immune system, the intestinal mucosa, and nutrient absorption. Given the potential negative behavioral effects of AFCs, it is important to determine why some children may be more sensitive to AFCs than others and to identify the tolerable upper limits of exposure for children in general and for children at high risk.

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“…Diet quality and dietary components, especially food additives, have been postulated as being associated with ADHD, but the findings are mixed (40,49,50). Poor diets are also suggested as a causal factor-diets low in copper, iron, zinc, and magnesium are associated with ADHD (49,51).…”

“…Bioprocessing with enzymes or microbes can be utilized to modify bran structure through the action of both endogenous and microbial enzymes, thereby affecting the technological functionality, bioactivity, and bioavailability of bran components (4,5,38,41,50). Treatment of wheat bran with carbohydrases and proteases resulted in increased protein solubilization of up to 58% (4,5), and activation of bran endogenous enzymes resulted in increased solubility of up to 75%.…”

“…However, the solubilization of protein has been shown to increase when treating wheat bran at 40% water content, with or without xylanase enzyme (49). Processing at low water content can be carried out in high-shear mixers, such as a farinograph or extruder (49,50). Jacquemin et al (29) studied the thermomechanical treatment of wheat bran and wheat straw mixtures to extract hemicelluloses by adding NaOH during the extrusion.…”

“…We previously demonstrated that air classification could offer new possibilities for protein separation when combined with pretreatments such as SC-CO 2 extraction (55) or thermomechanical bioprocessing (50). Defatting by SC-CO 2 can be used to enhance the dissociation of fiber, starch, and protein particles, providing advantages for enrichment of protein through dry grinding and dry fractionation (55).…”

Production of food colourants by filamentous fungi

“…However, with the increase in demand for food colourants, these natural sources of colourants became inadequate and synthetic food colourants were introduced into the market. Synthetic food colourants were widely used but people have become more conscious of the health implications of synthetic colourants in food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (Arnold et al, 2012;Stevens et al, 2013Stevens et al, , 2014). People's interest in natural sources of food colourants have been revitalized and research in ways of expanding sources of natural food colourants have become greatly E-mail: christiana.ogbonna@unn.edu.ng.…”