Mechanism of Zinc Excitotoxicity: A Focus on AMPK

Abstract

Over the last 20 years, it has been shown that complex signaling cascades are involved in zinc excitotoxicity. Free zinc rapidly induces PKC activation, which causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production at least in part through NADPH oxidase. It also promotes neuronal nitric oxide synthase, thereby increasing nitric oxide (NO) production. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation and Egr-1 transcription factor activity were quickly induced by zinc, too. These concurrent actions of kinases consequently produce oxygen free radical, ROS, and NO, which may cause severe DNA damage. Following the excessive activity of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 depletes NAD + /ATP in the cells. Zinc excitotoxicity exhibits distinct characteristics of apoptosis, too. Activation of caspase-3 is induced by liver kinase B1 (LKB1)-AMPactivated kinase (AMPK)-Bim cascade signaling and induction of p75NTR receptors and p75NTR-associated Death Executor. Thus, zinc excitotoxicity is a mechanism of neuronal cell death showing various cell death patterns. In addition to the above signaling cascades, individual intracellular organelles also play a crucial role in zinc excitotoxicity. Mitochondria and lysosomes function as zinc reservoirs, and as such, are capable of regulating zinc concentration in the cytoplasm. However, when loaded with too much zinc, they may undergo mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening, and lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP), both of which are wellestablished mechanisms of cell death. Since zinc excitotoxicity has been reported to be associated with acute brain injuries, including stroke, trauma, and epilepsy, we performed to find the novel AMPK inhibitors as therapeutic agents for these diseases. Since we thought acute brain injury has complicated neuronal death pathways, we tried to see the neuroprotection against zinc excitotoxicity, calcium-overload excitotoxicity, oxidative damage, and apoptosis. We found that two chemicals showed significant neuroprotection against all cellular neurotoxic models we tested. Finally, we observed the reduction of infarct volume in a rat model of brain injury after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). In this review, we introduced the AMPK-mediated cell death mechanism and novel strategy for the development of stroke therapeutics. The hope is that this understanding would provide a rationale for acute brain injury and eventually find new therapeutics.

The Difference Between The Response To Glutamate Excitotoxicity and The Role Of Ca2+ Channel Blockers in Cortical Neuron and SH-SY5Y Cells Cultures

“…At the same time, Manev et al, (1997) found that amlodipine ameliorated both mitochondrial injury and cell death in zinc neurotoxicity in rat cerebellar granule cells. It is declared that Zn 2+ induce neuronal death by enhancing glutamate excitotoxicity (Kim et al, 2020). Specifically, our results show that similar to previous reports lacidipine and amlodipine alleviated glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in neuron and SH-SY5Y cells in a concentration-dependent.…”

Restoration of Sarco/Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+-ATPase Activity Functions as a Pivotal Therapeutic Target of Anti-Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity to Attenuate Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ Depletion

“…Furthermore, enhanced cytoprotective autophagy can mitigate glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. We may have long overlooked that other cations, such as zinc ions, may play an essential role in AMPK-mediated excitotoxicity ( Granzotto et al, 2020 ; Kim et al, 2020 ). New ion-tracing techniques, such as ultrahigh-resolution optical microscopy, are promising approaches that can be used to unravel these mysteries ( Chen Q. et al, 2020 ; Fang et al, 2021 ; Wang L. et al, 2022 ).…”

Human genetic adaptation related to cellular zinc homeostasis

“…Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and it is essential for cognition and emotion ( 51 ). Also, glutamate excitotoxicity has been shown to be partially mediated by zinc overload in the postsynaptic neuron ( 52 ). Thus, a putative adaptive function of Met50Val substitution to reduce zinc-mediated excitotoxicity is an attractive hypothesis that deserves further studies.…”