Measuring the invisible: Development and multi‐industry validation of the Gender Bias Scale for Women Leaders

Abstract

Gender bias is a pervasive problem with significant negative outcomes for women leaders and organizations. Bias manifests in a multiplicity of forms, ranging from subtle to overt. To date, no instrument exists to measure women leaders' perceptions of gender bias. This study presents a comprehensive measure of how women leaders perceive and experience gender bias. Drawing from a national sample of female higher education executives (n = 488), faith‐based organization leaders (n = 298), physicians (n = 293), and attorneys (n = 527), the present research developed and validated the Gender Bias Scale for Women Leaders. Building upon a previously established and expansive cross‐level conceptual framework to develop the initial item pool, results from both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported a factor structure consisting of six higher‐order and 15 lower‐order factors. Our results show that several factors of the Gender Bias Scale correlated with workplace outcomes of turnover intention and satisfaction. Human resource development (HRD) professionals may use the Gender Bias Scale to identify the specific types of bias prevalent for women leaders in their organizations and apply interventions accordingly. Implications for women leaders and HRD professionals and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Advocating the use of threshold effects estimation: An illustration using the gender wage gap

“…Across many HRD research areas, there is recent heightened interest in gender equity in the workplace and understanding barriers to women's leadership (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Diehl, Stephenson, Dzubinski, & Wang, 2020). Such barriers, whether overt or subtle, impede the progress of women into top leadership roles.…”

You’re Prettier When You Smile: Construction and Validation of a Questionnaire to Assess Microaggressions Against Women in the Workplace

“…Although since the 1960s and 1970s organizations and lawmakers alike have implemented policies to reduce gender discrimination, movements in which women speak up against sexual harassment and abuse in the workplace are on the rise (e.g., #MeToo, Time’s Up) indicating the continuing existence of sexism ( Diehl et al, 2020 ). A recent study by the German Federal Ministry of Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth presented supporting evidence: 63% of women (compared to 49% of men) experienced or witnessed some form of sexism in their direct environment ( Wippermann, 2019 ).…”

“…Microaggressions have more recently been defined as “ brief and commonplace daily verbal , behavioral , and environmental indignities , whether intentional or unintentional , that communicate hostile , derogatory , or negative racial , gender , sexual-orientation , and religious slights and insults to the target person or group ” ( Sue et al, 2007 , p. 5). These actions are often unconscious and ambiguous in their intent to harm, making them difficult to pinpoint, yet they might be just as detrimental to the target as the more blatant forms of discrimination ( Jones et al, 2016 ; Diehl et al, 2020 ). Microaggressions can be divided into three major categories: microassaults , microinsults , and microinvalidations ( Sue et al, 2007 ; Sue and Capodilupo, 2008 ; Sue, 2010a ).…”

“…Gender microaggressions at the workplace can have costly consequences for organizations and female leaders alike ( Diehl et al, 2020 ). Gender microaggressions, or other forms of subtle gender discrimination, have been shown to negatively affect job satisfaction ( Cortina et al, 2001 ; Chan et al, 2008 ), well-being ( Lim and Cortina, 2005 ; Brondolo et al, 2008 ), self-esteem ( Nadal, 2010 ; Oswald et al, 2019 ), engagement, organizational commitment, professional self-efficacy ( Dardenne et al, 2007 ; Jones et al, 2016 ), subjective feelings of competence at the workplace ( Glick and Fiske, 1996 , 2001 ) and workplace performance ( Chan et al, 2008 ; Jones et al, 2014 ).…”

“…Gender microaggressions are considered to be one of the main barriers for women’s professional advancement ( Diehl et al, 2020 ), by keeping women from meeting their vocational potential ( Nadal and Haynes, 2012 ), as well as reaching leadership positions ( Ely et al, 2011 ; Jones et al, 2016 ). For example, compared to men women are less frequently perceived as having what it takes to be a leader ( Eagly and Carly, 2007 ; Hoyt, 2010 ; Hoyt and Murphy, 2016 ).…”