Measuring Embodied Blue Water in American Diets: An EIO Supply Chain Approach

Systematic Review of Dietary Patterns and Sustainability in the United States

“…Four studies found that a Healthy US-style diet was associated with similar or increased use of blue water (surface and groundwater in streams, lakes, and aquifers), driven partly by increases in dairy, fruits, and vegetables. Tom et al ( 43 ), Rehkamp and Canning ( 39 ), and Birney et al ( 26 ) found similar blue water use (15–16% increase) compared with the current average US diet, while Mekonnen and Fulton ( 35 ) reported a 35% increase in blue water use. Mekonnen and Fulton ( 35 ) and Birney et al ( 26 ) found no difference in use of green water (rainwater and soil moisture) (4–7% decrease).…”

“…Studies using EIO-LCA estimated environmental impacts of dietary patterns by merging environmental impacts and economic flows of food and agricultural industries producing food for purchase or consumption in the United States. System boundaries for these studies were cradle-to-retail stage of the food supply chain, where retail included restaurants, grocery stores, or other places where consumers purchase food ( 8 , 28 , 32 , 33 , 39 ). System boundaries for PLCA studies were typically cradle-to-farm-gate, although some included primary processing of agricultural products (cradle-to-processor-gate) ( 24 , 31 , 40 , 42 , 43 ).…”

“…System boundaries for PLCA studies were typically cradle-to-farm-gate, although some included primary processing of agricultural products (cradle-to-processor-gate) ( 24 , 31 , 40 , 42 , 43 ). Nine of the 22 studies (41%) captured environmental impacts associated with food waste or loss occurring at some point along the food supply chain, although only 4 reported findings specific to food waste and its impacts ( 8 , 26 , 28 , 32 – 34 , 38 , 39 ). While 14 studies included climate impacts via GHGs as an environmental impact category, only 2 accounted for GHGs from land-use change (e.g., plant or soil carbon change from conversion of land from one use to another within a supply chain) ( 24 , 34 ).…”

“…Studies modeling shifts from the current average US diet to the Healthy US-style pattern consistently found that the latter would require greater intakes of fruits, vegetables, and dairy and lesser intakes of meat and poultry, as well as oils, fats, and sugars. Changes in intake of seafood, grains, and nuts varied ( 8 , 26 , 33 , 35 , 37 – 39 , 43 ).…”

Evaluation of Environmental Impacts Due to Blue Water Consumption in China from Production and Consumption Perspectives

“…Based on the study of Kummu et al, the global blue water consumption per capita has increased from 209 m 3 /(year∙capita) in the 1900s to 230 m 3 /(year∙capita) in the 2000s, and total blue water consumption increased fourfold within the same period when taking the increase of the global population into consideration [ 2 , 8 ]. The blue water uses in America [ 9 , 10 ], China [ 11 ], Cyprus [ 12 ], and the United Kingdom [ 13 ] have also been evaluated and different sectors including agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors have been included. Compared with the traditional or restricted measure of water withdrawal, the water footprint could be regarded as a comprehensive freshwater appropriation indicator, which could illustrate the volume of blue water used to produce products over the full supply chain from different perspectives [ 14 ].…”