Measurements of radiation quality factor on Mars with the Mars Science Laboratory Radiation Assessment Detector

Zeitlin, C.; Hassler, D. M.; Ehresmann, Bent; Rafkin, Scot; Guo, Jingnan; Wimmer‐Schweingruber, R. F.; Berger, Thomas; Matthiä, Daniel

doi:10.1016/j.lssr.2019.07.010

Cited by 22 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…Given the similar solar modulation conditions of the two periods, the difference between their hQi values is mainly due to the more effective Mars atmospheric shielding against heavy ions in the LET view cone of RAD, i.e., the same reason for the difference in the LET histograms explained in the previous paragraph. Over the course of the mission, hQi values have declined compared to this early measurement, and in more recent data average about 2.3; see Zeitlin et al (2019) and Sect. 3.2 for details.…”

Section: Quality Factor and Dose Equivalentmentioning

confidence: 81%

“…This reveals a shielding effect of the atmosphere on the surface radiation environment (Rafkin et al 2014). Data and models (Guo et al 2017a;Zeitlin et al 2019;Singleterry Jr et al 2011) suggest that the underlying cause of the observed diurnal effect is the fragmentation of heavy ions in the predominantly CO 2 atmosphere; as atmospheric depth increases, a decreasing share of heavy ions (which make a disproportionately large contribution to dose) survive transport to the surface intact.…”

Section: 2mentioning

confidence: 93%

“…With the measured deposited energy (dE) in the B detector, a dE=dx histogram can be constructed. Then an approximate silicon-to-water factor ( $ 1:79; Zeitlin et al 2019) is applied to convert the LET measured in silicon to an estimated LET spectrum in water. (The conversion factor is accurate at the ±5% level.)…”

Section: Let Histogrammentioning

confidence: 99%

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Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements

Guo

Zeitlin

Wimmer‐Schweingruber

et al. 2021

Astron Astrophys Rev

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Potential deleterious health effects to astronauts induced by space radiation is one of the most important long-term risks for human space missions, especially future planetary missions to Mars which require a return-trip duration of about 3 years with current propulsion technology. In preparation for future human exploration, the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) was designed to detect and analyze the most biologically hazardous energetic particle radiation on the Martian surface as part of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. RAD has measured the deep space radiation field within the spacecraft during the cruise to Mars and the cosmic ray induced energetic particle radiation on Mars since Curiosity’s landing in August 2012. These first-ever surface radiation data have been continuously providing a unique and direct assessment of the radiation environment on Mars. We analyze the temporal variation of the Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) radiation and the observed Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) events measured by RAD from the launch of MSL until December 2020, i.e., from the pre-maximum of solar cycle 24 throughout its solar minimum until the initial year of Cycle 25. Over the long term, the Mars’s surface GCR radiation increased by about 50% due to the declining solar activity and the weakening heliospheric magnetic field. At different time scales in a shorter term, RAD also detected dynamic variations in the radiation field on Mars. We present and quantify the temporal changes of the radiation field which are mainly caused by: (a) heliospheric influences which include both temporary impacts by solar transients and the long-term solar cycle evolution, (b) atmospheric changes which include the Martian daily thermal tide and seasonal CO$$_2$$ 2 cycle as well as the altitude change of the rover, (c) topographical changes along the rover path-way causing addition structural shielding and finally (d) solar particle events which occur sporadically and may significantly enhance the radiation within a short time period. Quantification of the variation allows the estimation of the accumulated radiation for a return trip to the surface of Mars under various conditions. The accumulated GCR dose equivalent, via a Hohmann transfer, is about $$0.65 \pm 0.24$$ 0.65 ± 0.24 sievert and $$1.59 \pm 0.12$$ 1.59 ± 0.12 sievert during solar maximum and minimum periods, respectively. The shielding of the GCR radiation by heliospheric magnetic fields during solar maximum periods is rather efficient in reducing the total GCR-induced radiation for a Mars mission, by more than 50%. However, further contributions by SEPs must also be taken into account. In the future, with advanced nuclear thrusters via a fast transfer, we estimate that the total GCR dose equivalent can be reduced to about 0.2 sievert and 0.5 sievert during solar maximum and minimum periods respectively. In addition, we also examined factors which may further reduce the radiation dose in space and on Mars and discuss the many uncertainties in the interpreting the biological effect based on the current measurement.

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Section: Quality Factor and Dose Equivalentmentioning

confidence: 81%

Section: 2mentioning

confidence: 93%

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Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements

Guo

Zeitlin

Wimmer‐Schweingruber

et al. 2021

Astron Astrophys Rev

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“…The space radiation environment differs in and beyond LEO, including the surface of the Moon [23][24][25][26][27][28], Mars [23], deep space [29,30], and their comparisons [23,31]. In past explorations, space radiation measurements have been conducted by three interplanetary missions in the orbital environment of both the Moon and Mars to generate global dosage maps and to measure energy spectra below 100 MeV [32][33][34][35][36]. In deep space outside Earth's protective magnetic field, HZE charged particles of GCRs and solar energetic particles (SEPs) strongly affect the dosimetry of astronauts.…”

Section: Radiation Environment In Low-earth Orbits (Leo)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Space Radiation Biology for “Living in Space”

Furukawa

Nagamatsu

Nenoi

et al. 2020

BioMed Research International

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Space travel has advanced significantly over the last six decades with astronauts spending up to 6 months at the International Space Station. Nonetheless, the living environment while in outer space is extremely challenging to astronauts. In particular, exposure to space radiation represents a serious potential long-term threat to the health of astronauts because the amount of radiation exposure accumulates during their time in space. Therefore, health risks associated with exposure to space radiation are an important topic in space travel, and characterizing space radiation in detail is essential for improving the safety of space missions. In the first part of this review, we provide an overview of the space radiation environment and briefly present current and future endeavors that monitor different space radiation environments. We then present research evaluating adverse biological effects caused by exposure to various space radiation environments and how these can be reduced. We especially consider the deleterious effects on cellular DNA and how cells activate DNA repair mechanisms. The latest technologies being developed, e.g., a fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator, to measure real-time cell cycle progression and DNA damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet radiation are presented. Progress in examining the combined effects of microgravity and radiation to animals and plants are summarized, and our current understanding of the relationship between psychological stress and radiation is presented. Finally, we provide details about protective agents and the study of organisms that are highly resistant to radiation and how their biological mechanisms may aid developing novel technologies that alleviate biological damage caused by radiation. Future research that furthers our understanding of the effects of space radiation on human health will facilitate risk-mitigating strategies to enable long-term space and planetary exploration.

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“…Analysis of the interplanetary and Martian radiation environment by the RAD aboard the Mars Science Laboratory’s Curiosity rover demonstrates that most of the radiation dose was incurred during the transit phase of the mission [ 26 , 27 ]. Follow-up data obtained over the subsequent 2000 sols of the Curiosity rover’s mission on Mars demonstrates a decreased quality factor for GCRs on the planetary surface as compared to free space, with dose equivalent values in the range of 1/3–1/2 of those experienced during transit [ 51 ]. Surface habitats can be further augmented with lunar/Martian regolith, whereas options for improving shielding during the cruise phase of the mission are necessarily more limited.…”

Section: Countermeasuresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Space Radiation Protection Countermeasures in Microgravity and Planetary Exploration

Montesinos¹,

Khalid

Cristea

et al. 2021

Life

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Background: Space radiation is one of the principal environmental factors limiting the human tolerance for space travel, and therefore a primary risk in need of mitigation strategies to enable crewed exploration of the solar system. Methods: We summarize the current state of knowledge regarding potential means to reduce the biological effects of space radiation. New countermeasure strategies for exploration-class missions are proposed, based on recent advances in nutrition, pharmacologic, and immune science. Results: Radiation protection can be categorized into (1) exposure-limiting: shielding and mission duration; (2) countermeasures: radioprotectors, radiomodulators, radiomitigators, and immune-modulation, and; (3) treatment and supportive care for the effects of radiation. Vehicle and mission design can augment the overall exposure. Testing in terrestrial laboratories and earth-based exposure facilities, as well as on the International Space Station (ISS), has demonstrated that dietary and pharmacologic countermeasures can be safe and effective. Immune system modulators are less robustly tested but show promise. Therapies for radiation prodromal syndrome may include pharmacologic agents; and autologous marrow for acute radiation syndrome (ARS). Conclusions: Current radiation protection technology is not yet optimized, but nevertheless offers substantial protection to crews based on Lunar or Mars design reference missions. With additional research and human testing, the space radiation risk can be further mitigated to allow for long-duration exploration of the solar system.

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Measurements of radiation quality factor on Mars with the Mars Science Laboratory Radiation Assessment Detector

Cited by 22 publications

References 19 publications

Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements

Radiation environment for future human exploration on the surface of Mars: the current understanding based on MSL/RAD dose measurements

Space Radiation Biology for “Living in Space”

Space Radiation Protection Countermeasures in Microgravity and Planetary Exploration

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