Measurements of friction coefficients and cohesion for faulting and fault reactivation in laboratory models using sand and sand mixtures

Krantz, Robert W.

doi:10.1016/0040-1951(91)90323-k

Cited by 313 publications

(189 citation statements)

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“…lying between 2600 and 3000 kg/m 3 (Goodman, 1989). Therefore, we used a mixture of wheat flour and sifted sand, both 50% in volume: (i) the dry, sifted sand is characterized by a grain size of 200÷ 350 µm, a bulk volume of 1470 kg/m 3 and a low cohesion (e.g., 30-40 Pa- Walter and Troll, 2001); (ii) the wheat flour has a bulk density of 700 kg/m 3 and a cohesion of 330 Pa (Krantz, 1991); (iii) our mixture has a density of 1215 kg/ m 3 , a measured φ of 41 • and a cohesion surely between the range 5-500 Pa, in order to reach a scaled value close to natural rocks (10 6 Pa; e.g., density ratio and cohesion range).…”

Section: Scaling Proceduresmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Based on the geometry of the splay and the kinematics of the main fault, the resulting configuration can be an extensional or a contractional imbricate fan (Woodcock and Fischer, 1986); (iii) the transform fault tip coincides with the tip of a normal or a reverse fault ( Figure 1C). An example can be observed at the intersection between the Sumatra Fault in Indonesia and the Sunda Strait Rift (Lelgemann et al, 2000), and at the tip coinciding with the Median Tectonic Line and the Yatsushiro graben in Japan (Kamata and Kodama, 1994); (iv) the transform fault terminates in correspondence of a through-going reverse or normal fault system ( Figure 1D). This configuration can be observed, for example, where the Dead Sea fault intersects the Red Sea Rift (Joffe and Garfunkel, 1987).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Interaction between Transform Faults and Rift Systems: A Combined Field and Experimental Approach

2016

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We present a detailed field structural survey of the area of interaction between the active NW-striking transform Husavik-Flatey Fault (HFF) and the N-S Theystareykir Fissure Swarm (TFS), in North Iceland, integrated by analog scaled models. Field data contribute to a better understanding of how transform faults work, at a much higher detail than classical marine geophysical studies. Analog experiments are conducted to analyse the fracture patterns resulting from different possible cases where transform faulting accompanies or postpones the rift motions. Different tectonic block configurations are also considered and results are compared with field data in order to study as thoroughly as possible the interaction between the HFF and the TFS as well as the possible prolongation of the HFF into the TFS. West of the intersection between the transform fault (HFF) and the rift zone (TFS), the former splays with a gradual bending giving rise to a leading extensional imbricate fan. The westernmost structure of the rift, the N-S Gudfinnugja Fault (GF), is divided into two segments: the southern segment makes a junction with the HFF and is part of the imbricate fan; north of the junction instead, the northern GF appears right-laterally offset by about 20 m. Southeast of the junction, along the possible prolongation of the HFF across the TFS, the strike of the rift faults rotates in an anticlockwise direction, attaining a NNW-SSE orientation. Moreover, the TFS faults north of the HFF prolongation are fewer and have smaller offsets than those located to the south. Through the comparison between the structural data collected in the field at the HFF-TFS connection zone and a set of scaled experiments, we confirm a prolongation of the HFF through the rift, although here the transform fault has a much lower slip-rate than west of the junction. Our data suggest that transform fault terminations may be more complex than previously known, and propagate across a rift through a modification of the rift pattern.

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Section: Scaling Proceduresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Interaction between Transform Faults and Rift Systems: A Combined Field and Experimental Approach

2016

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“…This value is so small that dry sand is an excellent modeling material to properly scale the failure criterion. Sand fails according to the Coulomb criterion with a cohesion in the range of 300-500 Pa [Kranz, 1991] 15,221 and has an angle of internal friction that lies within the correct range of values required for scaled models of crustal rocks (300-45 ø) [Byerlee, 1978] under a large range of conditions [Lambe and Whitman, 1968]. However, the size of sand grains does not scale with the size of the model [Horsfield, 1977].…”

Section: -0227 / 98 / 98j B-00751 $0900mentioning

confidence: 99%

Analogue models of obliquely convergent continental plate boundaries

Burbidge¹,

Braun²

1998

J. Geophys. Res.

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Abstract. Analogue models are used to examine crustal-scale faulting at obliquely convergent continental plate boundaries. A uniform Coulomb material is deformed with basal kinematic boundary conditions to model two obliquely convergent lithospheric plates. The mantle part of one plate is assumed to detach from its overriding crust and then be subducted beneath the other plate. The obliquity of the collision is assumed to remain constant throughout the deformation. Experiments are run with obliquities ranging from pure convergence (low obliquity) to pure strike slip (high obliquity). Reverse faults are observed for all obliquities with a nonzero convergent component. By contrast, only collisions with a large amount of strike slip motion exhibit wrench faulting. In experiments dominated by their convergent component, the strike slip motion is totally accommodated by oblique slip along the reverse faults. Strain partitioning between reverse faults and wrench faults is only observed for experiments run above a certain critical partitioning obliquity. From the observed initial faults, we can deduce the change in orientation in the principal stress triad as the obliquity is changed. We propose that the initial direction of maximum compressive stress (•rl) rotates horizontally as the obliquity is changed, which in turn affects the geometry of the initial faults formed in the material. In the case of reverse faults, the rotation increases their dip measured along the direction of pure convergence. The relative magnitude of the minimum horizontal stress and the vertical stress determine whether reverse faults or strike slip faults are the first to form. Although long term deformation is more difficult to analyze, a simple relationship for the angle at which strain partitioning occurs is derived.

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“…In fact, centrifugal force by inducing greater stress directly affects the material properties of sand, which vary with stress level, and this accounts for why sand inherently exhibits scale-dependent behavior, possibly contributing to scale effect in sandbox simulation. The scale-dependent properties of sand include stiffness, frictional angle and shear strength (Hubbert 1937;Hubbert 1951;Horsfield 1977;Krantz 1991;Schellart 2000;Lohrmann et al 2003). An increase in applied stress results in the compaction of sand, which can be expressed in terms of increasing relative density or a decreasing void ratio.…”

Section: Discussion Of Scale Factorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sandbox Experiments of Plate Convergence - Scale Effect and Associated Mechanisms

Lin¹,

Chen²,

Chang³

et al. 2005

Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci.

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ABSTRACT1 Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC 2 Institute of Geoscience, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC 3 Department of Civil Engineering, National Central University, Chung-Li, Taiwan, ROC * Corresponding author address: Prof. Fu-Shu Jeng, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; E-mail: fsjeng@ntu.edu.tw When using a sandbox to simulate tectonic activities, it is essential to thoroughly understand scale effect and its consequence so as to ensure an adequate model with representative simulation results. This paper investigates the topography, faulting lineaments, and internal structures of different scales associated with the simulation of plate convergence using sandbox modeling, based on three major test series. In the first test series, plate convergence is performed using simple models with flat bases to investigate fundamental behavior and observe the scale effect. The scales of sandbox models are altered either by varying the thickness of sand or by applying centrifugal conditions. The models have a relative depth scale of 1 : 2 : 20 : 40. In the second test series, the scale effects of a sandbox modeling given more realistic conditions are studied, i.e., models with underlain basement highs based on the configuration of western Taiwan. In the third test series, the impact of rougher base friction, and the effects of compaction are investigated to identify possible factors related to scale effect. Based on the observed scale effect, the possible factors accounting for scale effects are also discussed in this paper.Just like most sands, the sand tested is characterized by two phenomena: (1) its internal frictional angle increases from 34° to 41° under greater degrees of compaction, with a relative density ranging from 55 to 90%; and (2) it possesses nonlinear constitutive behavior, whereby the deformational modulus increases upon greater confining stress. Such behavior inherently accounts for scale effect in the way that the embedded stress of sand is TAO, Vol. 16, No. 3, August 2005 596 proportional to its depth; however, the frictional angle and the stiffness of sand cannot be retained constant.Results obtained from the first test series indicate that models with greater depth scale tend to have less deformation concentration near the backstop, quicker thrust faulting and longer fault propagation distances. Meanwhile, internal structures of models with greater depth scales, characterized by more pop-up structures, differ from those of small-scale models. Based on the critical wedge theory, the smaller slope angle yielded under a greater depth scale indicates stronger material strength, which results from greater confining stress or compaction. Moreover, the hardening, or increased stiffness of sand may facilitate forward propagation of convergence stress thereby contributing to the occurrence of scale effect.For the second test series, the yielding of three major fault groups, and curved faults is c...

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Measurements of friction coefficients and cohesion for faulting and fault reactivation in laboratory models using sand and sand mixtures

Cited by 313 publications

References 7 publications

Interaction between Transform Faults and Rift Systems: A Combined Field and Experimental Approach

Interaction between Transform Faults and Rift Systems: A Combined Field and Experimental Approach

Analogue models of obliquely convergent continental plate boundaries

Sandbox Experiments of Plate Convergence - Scale Effect and Associated Mechanisms

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