Measurement of the Flow of Liquefied Gases with Sharp-Edged Orifices

Maximum Two-Phase Flow Rates of Sub-Cooled Nitrogen Through a Sharp-Edged Orifice

“…The subject of two-phase flow through orifices is a rect<rring theme in the literature (9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16). The experiments have been confined to flows of saturated or slightly subcooled liquids, generally at low pressure, except for the work of Hesson and Peck (14), which covered saturated flows over most of the vapor pressure locus of CO 2 .…”

“…The two major points of interest have been whether the flow really chokes and how to predict it. The earlier work (9)(10)(11)(12)(13) all concluded that orifices would not choke, while later work (14,15) claimed to confirm choking. The difference may lie in the loose use of the terms orifice and choking.…”

“…(12) reported the variation of flow coefficient with Reynolds number. Hesson and Peck (14) and Bonnet (15) suggest a two-phase equilibrium calculation and imply a critical throat pressure such as one would expectin nozzles.…”

Prediction of symptoms of cavitation

“…mp , ven Luri , or valve. Regardless of the liquid , t he volum e flo w rates will be the same at Lh e same non-ClwiLa Lin g operating poin l. Viscous and co mpressibili Ly efl•ects are ass um ed negligible (experim enLs by Richard s [7], Purcell [8], and Mar tin [9] show tha t Lhis ass ump tion is ,),ccep table). Under the same ass ump tion it follows (and ex perien ce confirm s) t hat the staLic press ure g raclien Ls within th e device (expressed in height of liquid ) arc essen tially independent of th e liquid .…”

The national measurement system for cryogenics

“…As discussed in Section 2.2.1.1, the Compressed Gas Association was a specific beneficiary, and the member companies most interested in the problem (see Table 2 Specifically, analyses and summary reports were prepared on the following topics: (1) cost and availability of hydrogen, (2) hydrogen in the electrical utility industry, (3) applications of hydrogen in transportation, (4) survey of materials for hydrogen service, (5) instrumentation for cryogenic hydrogen fuel, (6) transmission and distribution of energy, (7) solar energy liquid hydrogen, (8) industrial applications of hydrogen, and (9) hydrogen fuel literature These analyses demonstrated, among other things, that even now hydrogen appears attractive as an aircraft and aerospace fuel, in certain integrated utility systems (e.g., use of hydrogen to store solar energy), for transport of energy from nuclear or solar sea power plants and is already an essential ingredient in a wide variety of industrial processes (ammonia synthesis, hydrocracking, hydrotreating, and methanol synthesis).…”