“…As private tutoring costs are less relevant for wealthy families, tutoring attendance is theoretically and empirically dependent on families’ economic resources (Tansel & Bircan, ; Buchmann et al , ; Jung & Lee, ; Kim & Park, ; Guill, ; Hille et al , ). The effects of families’ economic resources might even be underestimated, as not all studies explicitly differentiate between paid and free private tutoring in their questionnaires (Bray & Kobakhidze, ). As predicted, there is evidence from qualitative (Kirss & Jokić, ) and quantitative analyses (Smyth, ; Guill, ) that private tutoring also increases in line with families’ educational aspirations and, as educational aspirations depend on social status (Boudon, ), with their social status (Smyth, ) or education level (Davies, ; Tansel & Bircan, ; Dang, ; Kim & Park, ).…”