Measurement invariance testing of a three-factor model of parental warmth, psychological control, and knowledge across European and Asian/Pacific Islander American youth.

Abstract

While the interpretation and effects of parenting on developmental outcomes may be different across European and Asian/Pacific Islander (API) American youth, measurement invariance of parenting constructs has rarely been examined. Utilizing multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis, we examined whether the latent structure of parenting measures are equivalent or different across European and API American youth. Perceived parental warmth, psychological control, and knowledge were reported by a community sample of 325 adolescents (242 Europeans and 83 APIs). Results indicated that one item did not load on mother psychological control for API American youth. After removing this item, we found metric invariance for all parenting dimensions, providing support for cross-cultural consistency in the interpretation of parenting items. Scalar invariance was found for father parenting, whereas three mother parenting items were non-invariant across groups at the scalar level. After taking into account several minor forms of measurement non-invariance, non-invariant factor means suggested that API Americans perceived lower parental warmth and knowledge but higher parental psychological control than European Americans. Overall, the degree of measurement non-invariance was not extensive and was primarily driven by a few parenting items. All but one parenting item included in this study may be used for future studies across European and API American youth.

Examination of Korean immigrant mothers’ parenting practices: By using the framework of bilinear acculturation.

“…In a sample of Korean immigrant mother-youth dyads, this study examined the direct and indirect effects of mothers' acculturation/ enculturation on youth outcomes via mainstream versus culture specific parenting practices. We incorporated several methodological strategies to comprehend the recommendations for studying Asian immigrant parenting Kim et al, 2014;Luk et al, 2016;Park et al, 2010;Vu et al, 2019; First, as hypothesized, the significant paths from mothers' cultural orientations to parenting differed by informants. According to mothers' reports, their acculturation levels were related to the mainstream practices of authoritative parenting, communication, warmth, and autonomy support, while their enculturation levels were related to the culture specific practices of interdependence, commitment to education, and academic control, in addition to authoritarian parenting and warmth.…”

“…Future research may examine the dual paths of support and pressure linking parental educational commitment to youth outcomes. The overall discrepancy in mothers' and youth's reports highlights that both parties' perceptions should be considered (Kim et al, 2014;Luk et al, 2016;Yu et al, 2016). Given the particularly close links between youth-reported parenting and their outcomes, future research should consider children's perceptions importantly.…”

The influence of parental warmth and stress on reading through approaches to learning: Racial/ethnic variation

“…However, the study approach is limited in that it relies on the assumption that the measurement constructs are similar across racial/ethnic groups. Thus, research on self‐regulation development should implement a measurement invariance approach in order to build on the limited body of studies available that examine measurement invariance of parenting constructs by race/ethnicity (Crockett, Veed, & Russell, 2010; Luk, King, McCarty, Vander Stoep, & McCauley, 2016). Furthermore, future work that addresses culturally specific constructs of parenting should occur in tandem with research on self‐regulation development of Black, Hispanic and Asian children, in order to develop culturally specific constructs of self‐regulation in the unique context of the United States.…”

Prospective Effects of Parenting on Substance Use and Problems Across Asian/Pacific Islander and European American Youth: Tests of Moderated Mediation

“…Two identical versions were administered to assess mother and father parenting separately. Because the parental psychological control item "always tries to change how I feel or think about things" was non-invariant across race (Luk et al, 2016), this item was excluded from the current analyses, yielding a total of 44 parenting items (22 items per parent). Mean scores for each parenting dimension were calculated.…”