Measurement and prevalence of sexual harassment in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

ObjectivesWe synthesise evidence on sexual harassment from studies in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) to estimate its prevalence and conduct a meta-analysis of the association between sexual harassment and depressive symptoms.MethodsWe searched eight databases. We included peer-reviewed studies published in English from 1990 until April 2020 if they measured sexual harassment prevalence in LMICs, included female or male participants aged 14 and over and conceptualised sexual harassment as an independent or dependant variable. We appraised the quality of evidence, used a narrative syntheses approach to synthesise data and conducted a random effects meta-analysis.ResultsFrom 49 included studies, 38 focused on workplaces and educational institutions and 11 on public places. Many studies used an unclear definition of sexual harassment and did not deploy a validated measurement tool. Studies either used a direct question or a series of behavioural questions to elicit information on acts considered offensive or defined as sexual harassment. Prevalence was higher in educational institutions than in workplaces although there was high heterogeneity in prevalence estimates across studies with no international comparability. This posed a challenge for calculating an overall estimate or measuring a range. Our meta-analysis showed some evidence of an association between sexual harassment and depressive symptoms (OR: 1.75; 95% CI: 1.11 to 2.76; p=0.016) although there were only three studies with a high risk of bias.ConclusionTo our knowledge, this is the first systematic review to assess measurement approaches and estimate the prevalence of sexual harassment across settings in LMICs. We also contribute a pooled estimate of the association between sexual harassment and depressive symptoms in LMICs. There is limited definitional clarity, and rigorously designed prevalence studies that use validated measures for sexual harassment in LMICs. Improved measurement will enable us to obtain more accurate prevalence estimates across different settings to design effective interventions and policies.

Zero Tolerance for Workplace Harassment: Legal Regime of Pakistan

“…Government-owned businesses, companies, and cooperative societies are examples of workplaces including vocational, educational, sports, professional, entertainment, industrial, health-related, or financial activities, production, supply, sale, distribution, or service, which are all examples of commercial, vocational, educational, sports, professional, entertainment, industrial, healthrelated, or financial activities, are provided by private sector companies, enterprises, societies, trusts, NGOs, or service providers, hospitals, nursing homes, institutes and facilities for sports. Places where employees visited, including while on the trip and employer-provided transportation (Ranganathan et al, 2021). A place to live or a home.…”

“…Unwanted sexual advances, demands for sexual favours, and other verbal and physical harassment types are examples of sexual harassment (Ranganathan et al, 2021). Harassment does not have to be sexual, and it can also include disparaging remarks about a person's sexuality.…”

Adapting and Validating the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire to Study Sexual Harassment Among University Women in Jordan

“…The SEQ items overlap substantially with items in measures of SH that succeeded it (Aljerian et al, 2017; Çelik & Çelik, 2007; El Deeb, 2013; El Feki et al, 2017; European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2014; Krebs et al, 2016; The Jordanian National Commission for Women, 2017) and SEQ dimensions have been used as organizing framework for the development of scales for different settings, including Pakistan (Kamal & Tariq, 1997). Further, while the SEQ was developed initially for use with women in U.S. academic and private workplace settings, researchers have adapted the SEQ for different populations and countries, including LMICs such as Ghana, Zimbabwe, and China, men, the U.S. armed forces, and Latinas in the U.S. (Cortina, 2001; Fitzgerald et al, 1995, 1999, 1988; Gelfand et al, 1995; Murdoch & McGovern, 1998; Ranganathan et al, 2021; Swartout, 2018).…”

Association between sexual violence and depression is mediated by perceived social support among female University students in the Kingdom of Eswatini

“…The public nature of street harassment reinforces gendered power structures by providing perpetrators the opportunity to perform sexually aggressive behaviors congruent with toxic hegemonic masculinity while simultaneously reinforcing women's status as sexual objects who are vulnerable to control by sexual violence and potentially unsafe in public spaces (2,3). Experiencing street harassment has been associated with increased depression, anxiety, inability to sleep, disempowerment, humiliation and fear of public spaces (4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9).…”

“…Efforts to operationalize and measure the prevalence of street harassment are relatively new, however existing reports suggest that street harassment is extremely prevalent (9,30,31).…”