Maternal–prenatal stress and depression predict infant temperament during the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

Researchers have begun to examine the psychological toll of the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic. Data are now emerging indicating that there may be long-term adverse effects of the pandemic on new mothers and on children born during this period. In a longitudinal study of maternal mental health and child emotional development during the pandemic, we conducted online assessments of a cohort of women at two time points: when they were pregnant at the beginning of the surge of the pandemic in the United States (baseline, N = 725), and approximately 1 year postpartum (follow-up, N = 296), examining prenatal and postnatal maternal mental health, prenatal pandemic-related stress, and infant temperament. Pandemic-related stress at baseline was associated with concurrent depressive symptoms and infant negative affect at follow-up. Baseline maternal depressive symptoms were associated with follow-up depressive symptoms, which in turn were also associated with infant negative affect. Pandemic-related stress during pregnancy may have enduring effects on infant temperament. These findings have important implications for our understanding of the emotional development of children who were in utero during the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID‐19 pandemic effects: Examining prenatal internalizing symptoms and infant temperament

“…Consistent with this hypothesis, prenatal infection stress was positively associated with infant negative emotionality controlling for perinatal depression and anxiety symptoms. These findings align with two previous studies, which found pandemic‐related stress during pregnancy predicted greater negative affect during late infancy (Buthmann et al., 2022; Schweizer et al., 2023). The current study adds to the extant literature by demonstrating these associations during early infancy, which could aid in identifying infants at a younger age who may be at risk for problematic behavioral/emotional outcomes, such as later internalizing and externalizing problems (Gartstein et al., 2012).…”

“…Among the limited existing studies, researchers in Italy found pandemic‐related stress during pregnancy indirectly predicted poorer infant self‐regulation and positive affect at 3 months through factors such as parenting stress, mother‐infant bonding, and epigenetic changes on stress‐related genes (Provenzi, Grumi et al., 2021; Provenzi, Mambretti et al., 2021). Prenatal pandemic‐related stress has also been demonstrated to continue to predict temperament during late infancy, specifically greater negative affect (Buthmann et al., 2022; Schweizer et al., 2023). In contrast, Sacchi et al.…”

“…Second, within the pandemic sample, the unique effects of prenatal pandemic‐related stress on infant temperament were explored in women who were pregnant during COVID‐19. Based on previous research, pandemic‐related stress during pregnancy was expected to directly predict infant temperament (Buthmann et al., 2022; Schweizer et al., 2023). The current study also examined whether depression and anxiety symptoms during the perinatal period serve as a mediator linking pandemic‐related stress with infant temperament at 2 months.…”

Psychological, endocrine and polygenic predictors of emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in a longitudinal birth cohort

“…Our findings suggest that prenatal maternal stress has an impact on children’s well-being several years later in life, particularly under stressful circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic (H3a). Recent studies have examined the association between prenatal stress and children’s mental health but starting assessment in the pregnancy during the pandemic (Buthmann et al, 2022; Duguay et al, 2022; Provenzi et al, 2021), therefore examining children much younger than the ones investigated in the present sample of 7-10 years old children. In order to examine how children’s development and mental health are affected by prenatal maternal health later in life, subsequent study waves should investigate this association in the present sample at a later stages.…”

Prenatal exposure to environmental air pollution and psychosocial stress jointly contribute to the epigenetic regulation of the serotonin transporter gene in newborns

“…Evidence from pregnant cohorts around the world suggests that women experienced elevated symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic [5][6][7][8]. Furthermore, early reports indicate that antenatal exposure to maternal pandemic-related stress (PRS) is associated with early infants' developmental outcomes, including temperament [9][10][11][12], socio-emotional development [13], motor outcomes [14] and even brain connectivity patterns [15].…”