Mass-balance observation, reconstruction and sensitivity of Stok glacier, Ladakh region, India, between 1978 and 2019

Abstract

We present the first-ever mass-balance (MB) observation (2014–19), reconstruction (between 1978 and 2019) and sensitivity of debris-free Stok glacier (33.98°N, 77.45°E), Ladakh Region, India. In-situ MB was negative throughout the study period except in 2018/19 when the glacier witnessed a balanced condition. For MB modelling, three periods were considered based on the available data. Period I (1978–87, 1988/89) witnessed a near balance condition (−0.03 ± 0.35 m w.e. a−1) with five positive MB years. Whereas Period II (1998–2002, 2003–09) and III (2011–19) experienced high (−0.9 ± 0.35 m w.e. a−1) and moderate (−0.46 ± 0.35 m w.e. a−1) negative MBs, respectively. Glacier area for these periods was derived from the Corona, Landsat and PlanetScope imageries using a semi-automatic approach. The in-situ and modelled MBs were in good agreement with RMSE of 0.23 m w.e. a−1, R2 = 0.92, P < 0.05. The average mass loss was moderate (−0.47 ± 0.35 m w.e. a−1) over 28 hydrological years between 1978 and 2019. Sensitivity analysis showed that the glacier was more sensitive to summer temperature (−0.32 m w.e. a−1 °C−1) and winter precipitation (0.12 m w.e. a−1 for ± 10%). It was estimated that ~27% increase in precipitation is required on Stok glacier to compensate for the mass loss due to 1°C rise in temperature.

Understanding the interrelationships among mass balance, meteorology, discharge and surface velocity on Chhota Shigri Glacier over 2002–2019 using in situ measurements

“…Glaciological massbalance measurements are challenging in the Himalayan region due to the vast glacierized area, extreme altitudes and climate, rough terrain as well as trans-boundary problems. Nonetheless, several new mass-balance measurement programmes in the Indian, Nepalese and Bhutanese Himalaya have begun in recent years (Ramanathan, 2011;Tshering and Fujita, 2016;Sherpa and others, 2017;Soheb and others, 2020).…”

The Influence of Key Climate Variables on Mass Balance of Naimona'nyi Glacier on a North‐Facing Slope in the Western Himalayas

“…a −1 °C −1 and 0.12 m w.e. a −1 (10%) −1 , Soheb et al., 2020).…”

“…These suggestions are based on our analysis in Section 5.1, ERA5 data and observations from Burang meteorological station (Figure 9 and Table ). For Stok and Chhota Shigri glaciers (winter‐accumulation type glaciers), the higher mean annual mass balance during the 2010–2019 period, relative to that during the 2000–2009 period, can be explained by higher cold‐season mass balance, resulting from higher cold‐season precipitation, and by higher ablation‐season mass balance (Figure 8), attributable to both a lower ablation‐season T a and increased ablation‐season precipitation during the 2010–2019 period, relative to the 2000–2009 period (Azam et al., 2014; Soheb et al., 2020). Figure 8 shows that at least a half of increased mass balance during the 2000–2019 period are from increased cold‐season precipitation.…”

“…Figure 8 shows that at least a half of increased mass balance during the 2000–2019 period are from increased cold‐season precipitation. And compared to ablation‐season precipitation, cold‐season precipitation and ablation‐season T a may be more important drivers for interdecadal variability in the mass balance for Stok and Chhota Shigri glaciers (Azam et al., 2014; Soheb et al., 2020). Given the current knowledge on the relationships between the mass balance and local T a and local precipitation for three glaciers in the western Himalayas on the interdecadal scales, we now explore if these relationships are widespread across the western Himalayas.…”

“…Its time series of annual mass balance were modeled by Mandal et al (2020) during the 1999-2019 period; (c) the averaged seasonal mass balances during the periods of1999-2009 and 2012-2019, and the difference between these periods for Stok Glacier. Its time series of seasonal mass balances were modeled bySoheb et al (2020) during the 1999-2019 period; (d) the magnitude of seasonal mass balances during the periods of2000-2009 and 2010-2019, and the difference between these periods for Chhota Shigri Glacier. Its time series of seasonal mass balances were modeled byAzam et al (2014) during the 2000-2009 period and measured during the 2010-2019 period byMandal et al (2020).…”