“…Pollution: Water pollution, originating from various sources including oil spills at ports, household and industrial waste, and agricultural runoff, poses a significant threat to marine ecosystems. Karachi and its industrial estates are major contributors to untreated waste discharge into the sea, violating environmental regulations (Arif & Karim, 2015). Additionally, agricultural runoff diverted to coastal areas further worsens pollution levels, with significant proportions of wastewater from Karachi flowing into marine environments (Faruqee, 1997).…”