Marine Biotoxins in History: Misuse and Mayhem

Abstract

Saxitoxin (STX) and tetrodotoxin (TTX) have a colorful history. Two of the most toxic natural toxins known, they have been used as weapons to commit suicide, attempt, or successfully commit murder, and STX has been officially declared a chemical weapon by the world's governments. This meant that it was no longer a natural marine chemical of interest to toxinologists, pharmacologists, and at times seafood producers (because it can taint their product); it had now come upon the radar of many government agencies. TTX has its own mystique more renowned as the toxin of "fugu" fame, but also been blamed as the active agent in the zombification rituals in some Caribbean cultures. However, deliberate intoxications by these toxins remain far fewer than accidental deaths through eating poorly prepared fugu meals or saxitoxin-infested shellfish. Diagnosis, rather than detection, remains the best means of identifying whether a victim has been purposefully intoxicated. Treatment of intoxication by STX or TTX is still relatively crude, relying mostly upon gastric evacuation to remove unabsorbed toxin and symptomatic relief to nurse the victim through the acute phase of an intoxication and then relying upon the body's natural recovery mechanisms. Some potential pharmaceutical treatment options exist, but these have only been tested in small mammal studies, upon few test animals, and under limited conditions and would require significant investment in resources to progress them beyond the laboratory.