Manipulation in Politics

Abstract

Manipulation is a means by which a person is gotten to do something that the person was not initially inclined to do. As such, it is a form of power. Distinguishing it from other forms of power, such as persuasion, coercion, and physical force, is both important and difficult. It is important because it often matters which form of power a political actor uses, and manipulation is commonly thought to be a form of power whose exercise is undesirable. It is difficult because the line between manipulation and persuasion is often obscure, and because the term manipulation can be applied to tactics that influence the target’s state of mind, and tactics that change the target’s situation. Political theorists and philosophers have offered several accounts of manipulation: Some see it as deceptive influence, some see it as covert influence, some see it as influence with covert intent, some see it as offering bad reasons, and some see it as changing the external situation. While each of these approaches gets some things right about manipulation, each faces important challenges as well. One reason why manipulation seems undesirable is that it appears to undermine autonomy. This fact helps explain why concerns about manipulation arise in discussions of “nudges” that are meant to improve people’s decision making without coercion. Even if nudges benefit their targets, they may be undesirable on balance if they involve autonomy-undermining manipulation. Manipulation is a useful tool for autocrats, but it poses serious problems for democracies. This is because it appears to undermine the consent on which democratic legitimacy depends. Some political theorists argue that the problems posed by manipulation can be best addressed through deliberative democracy. Others dispute this suggestion. At the level of practice, there is reason to worry that late-20th- and 21st-century developments in psychology and the social and information sciences, as well as changes to the media landscape, threaten to make manipulation more prevalent and effective.

Impact of personalizing experiences of manipulation outside of awareness on autonomy.

“…Alternatively, for any method used to manipulate people outside of their awareness, successful or otherwise, we should instead focus on the intentions and agendas of those developing and employing these methods (e.g., Bovens, 2009; Chukwuma & Ngwoke, 2022; Crisp, 1987; Handelman, 2009; Phillips, 1997; Wilkinson, 2013). This often requires extra theoretical analysis regarding the ethicality of the use of various manipulative tactics, and the context of application (e.g., advertising, business, gaming, democratic activities, social media; e.g., Gatti et al, 2021; Kriz et al, 2022; Noggle, 2021; Rubin, 2022; Saura et al, 2021; Sunstein, 2021). This is because the intention to manipulate people outside of their awareness, whether unconsciously or through deceit, is in and of itself a potential threat to autonomy, even where the manipulation is designed to be beneficial to the individual or society (e.g., Jones et al, 2013; Sunstein, 2021).…”

Deceiving versus manipulating: An evidence‐based definition of deception

“…Cohen (2018a, 484) has recently suggested that “deception as such carries heavier moral weight compared with manipulation.” As he points out, “quite often manipulation isn't even impermissible.” For instance, it can be permissible to manipulate a terrorist in order to save innocent lives (see Noggle, 2020, section 3.1). Of course, this does not settle the matter.…”

“…Deception seems to be prima facie wrong (see Lackey, 2013, 237). As Christine Korsgaard (2007, 577) says with respect to lying in particular, “there is a general moral presumption against it.” However, several philosophers claim that there is no such presumption against manipulation (see Noggle, 2020, section 3.1).…”

“…It is important to note that deception is frequently treated as a type of manipulation rather than as a distinct phenomenon (see Noggle, 2020, section 2.2). So, the relevant contrast is between deception and, what Cohen (2018a, 483) calls, “non‐deceptive manipulation.” , And in order to establish that deception “carries heavier moral weight,” we need to find a difference between these two activities that makes a (moral) difference.…”

Determination from Above

“…2727The sourcehood concerns raised by the state are clear. Much of the free will literature presupposes that manipulation undermines freedom, and there is broad recognition of manipulation occurring through politics (Noggle, 2021). …”