Managing frostbite

Hallam, Marc-James; Cubison, T.; Dheansa, Baljit; Imray, Chris

doi:10.1136/bmj.c5864

Cited by 107 publications

(107 citation statements)

References 11 publications

(37 reference statements)

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“…1,10,12,[18][19][20][21][22] In keeping with previous studies, hypothermia correction and rapid rewarming treatments were not common. 14 This may be because patients were presenting late after their initial frostbite injury and had passively warmed themselves at home or in the hospital while waiting to be seen.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 61%

A retrospective cohort study examining treatments and operative interventions for frostbite in a tertiary care hospital

Fabian

Taljaard

Perry

2016

CJEM

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Background: Frostbite is a common yet challenging injury to both diagnose and treat. McCauley's frostbite treatment protocol consists of 12 treatments that might well represent the standard of care. However, its effectiveness in preventing operative intervention has yet to be examined. Our objectives were to characterize frostbite injuries in Eastern Ontario, identify risk factors for deep injuries, and assess the protocol's efficacy in preventing operative outcomes. Methods: This cohort study examined patients with frostbite over ten years at a tertiary care hospital. Demographics and predisposing factors were recorded. Frostbite severity was categorized into superficial or deep. Treatments were recorded, including adherence to protocol and operative outcome. Results: Of the 265 frostbite patients identified, deep frostbite accounted for 56 (21.1%, 95% CI: 16.2-26.1%), of whom 20 (35.7%) had an operative outcome. Amputation occurred in 16 (28.6%) of deep injuries and debridement in 5 (8.9%). Risk factors for deep frostbite were older age (p = 0.002), smoking (p <0.001), male sex (p = 0.056) and alcohol abuse (p = 0.056). None of the patients with deep frostbite had all 12 treatments performed. Adherence to protocol ranged from 0.0% to 48.2% per treatment. The rate of operative intervention was 7.7% in patients with deep frostbite who did not have any McCauley's frostbite treatments and ranged from 0.0% to 100.0% per treatment in those who did receive treatments. Conclusions: The frostbite protocol was not regularly followed and therefore its efficacy in preventing operative intervention could not be determined. Further, none of the individual treatments in the protocol were associated with preventing operative intervention. We recommend that future research focus on identifying effective individual treatments.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 61%

A retrospective cohort study examining treatments and operative interventions for frostbite in a tertiary care hospital

Fabian

Taljaard

Perry

2016

CJEM

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“…7 That work on rewarming established how treatment should begin and led to the current standard of rapid rewarming, débridement and aspiration of clear blisters, and application of dry bulky dressings. [8][9][10][11] The current challenge is to move beyond supportive care in the hospital to treatment that further decreases the amputation rate and long-term sequelae. In severe frostbite (grades 3 and 4), early rapid rewarming and careful tissue management may be augmented by pharmacologic therapy, including topical aloe vera ointment, oral ibuprofen and possibly intravenous therapy.…”

Section: Treatmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Treatment of severe frostbite with iloprost in northern Canada

Poole

Gauthier

2016

CMAJ

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A 46-year-old man was evacuated by air ambulance to Whitehorse General Hospital from the Yukon Arctic Ultra race, a 692-km running race. He had been running for 27 hours in temperatures ranging from -45°C to -50°C. Wearing only thin gloves, he had repeatedly exposed his hands to cold air and cold objects to drink, eat and adjust his gear. He had been running on snow, wearing cross-country running shoes. Feeling numbness in his hands and feet, he stopped running and passively rewarmed his hands in his sleeping bag while waiting for rescue. He presented to the emergency department with pain and discomfort in his hands and feet.On presentation, the patient's core temperature was 36.8°C. He had evidence of grade 3 frostbite to the right hand, with hemorrhagic blistering into the proximal phalanges of the fourth and fifth digits (Figure 1). His left hand showed evidence of frostbite on the volar aspect of the distal phalanges of the second and fourth digits. He also had frostbite to his left first and second toe, his right foot and his nose. He had no other injuries. He was healthy and athletic, with no contributing medical history. He was a nonsmoker and had not consumed alcohol recently.The patient's hands and feet were placed in a whirlpool bath of water mixed with chlorhexidine at 38°C until they were pink and warm. He was given ibuprofen 600 mg by mouth every six hours and fentanyl and morphine intravenously for pain. Once the patient's hands and feet were rewarmed, the clear blisters were aspirated, after which aloe vera ointment and porous lowadherent wound dressings were applied.The patient was given iloprost intravenously, titrated to the maximum dose of 2 ng/kg per min, for six hours daily for five days. The infusion rate was increased gradually to avoid adverse effects (e.g., headaches or hypotension). He tolerated the infusion well.On follow-up six months later, the patient's hands and feet showed complete healing. Amputation had not been required, but he reported hypersensitivity to touch and temperature. Case 2A 43-year-old man presented to the emergency department of Whitehorse General Hospital after completing the 100-mile (161-km) event of the Yukon Arctic Ultra race. He ran in temperatures ranging from -30°C to -50°C for 64 hours and then rewarmed his feet in a hot tub at his hotel. On presentation, he reported that his toes were numb and white. He was given oral cephalexin and discharged home. He returned to the emergency department 48 hours later concerned about a loss of sensation in his great toes. He recognized that he had frostbite and was seeking an alternative approach to watchful waiting.The patient had grade 3 frostbite to both great toes, with some mild erythematous extension into the metatarsophalangeal area of his right foot (Figure 2).The patient was a healthy and athletic orthopedic surgeon, with no contributing medical history. He was a nonsmoker and consumed alcohol occasionally. He was an experienced adventurer and had travelled to both poles in the past.The oral antibiotic was sto...

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“…Frostbite has historically been most frequently reported among military personnel and in countries with extreme environments (1)(2)(3), although the rise in popularity of winter sports has contributed to a substantial increase in civilian cases (4,5). Frostbite may also occur in the industrial setting from accidental exposure to refrigerant chemicals or dry ice, as well as in households from misuse of cold packs or fire extinguishers (6).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…During the freezethaw phase, intracellular ice crystals cause direct damage to cell membranes, while extracellular ice crystals alter oncotic pressures, leading to electrolyte shifts, intracellular dehydration, and cell death (12,13). The body initially responds to tissue freezing with alternating cycles of vasodilation and vasoconstriction (the "hunting reaction"), which lead to cycles of partial thawing and a prothrombotic microenvironment (4,5,12). During the vascular stasis phase, local vasoconstriction persists, and hypoxia and acidosis damage the endothelium and promote coagulation and interstitial edema (7,11).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Finally, hypoxia, endothelial injury, and local thrombosis lead to the late ischemic phase, in which inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, bradykinins, and histamine trigger additional vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, and vessel thrombosis (7,11,12). Because these inflammatory mediators peak during rewarming, cycles of refreezing and rewarming can worsen the extent of tissue loss (4,7,11). Therefore, initial frostbite treatment is targeted at restoring perfusion to the affected limb(s) and limiting tissue loss after rewarming.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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