Mammographic Breast Density and Urbanization: Interactions with BMI, Environmental, Lifestyle, and Other Patient Factors

Perry, Nick; Moss, Sue; Dixon, Steve; Milner, Sue; Mokbel, Kefah; Lemech, Charlotte; Arkenau, Hendrik‐Tobias; Duffy, Stephen W.; Pinker, Katja

doi:10.3390/diagnostics10060418

Cited by 4 publications

(2 citation statements)

References 24 publications

(47 reference statements)

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“…We previously reported a positive association between residence in urban areas and high mammographic density, a known predictor of future breast cancer risk (17). Our observations were partly attributed to elevated levels of air pollution associated with urbanization, including traffic emissions.…”

Section: Pm25 Exposure and Breast Cancer Riskmentioning

confidence: 52%

Breath of Danger: Unveiling PM2.5’s Stealthy Impact on Cancer Risks

MOKBEL

2024

Anticancer Res

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This article explores the intricate relationship between airborne particulate matter (PM), specifically PM2.5, and its profound impact on human health, emphasising the heightened risks of cancer. Examining the composition and characteristics of PM2.5, such as particle size and surface area, reveals its ability to induce inflammatory injury and oxidative damage. The carcinogenic potential extends beyond respiratory implications, affecting various organs, including the digestive tract, breast, and prostate. In addition to the genotoxic effects of PM2.5, attached polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are recognized to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals with specific implications for breast and prostate cancer. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 is associated with increased cancer mortality, with specific risks identified for different cancer types. The linear correlation between cancer risk and PM2.5 concentration calls for a re-evaluation of permissible emission levels. The article concludes by proposing specific mitigating strategies for individuals exposed to elevated PM2.5. It suggests antioxidantrich diets and supplements, and exploring inhalation-based antioxidant administration as potential protective measures.Air pollutants, such as ozone, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter (PM) of varying size pose risks, with long-term exposure linked to an increased risk of respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, cancer, and higher mortality rates (1, 2). PΜ particles are categorized by size: PM10 (particle diameters <10 μm), PM2.5 (particle diameters <2.5 μm), and PM0.1 (particle diameters <0.1 μm). The size correlates with the respiratory tract level they affect. PM10 accumulates in the upper respiratory tract, while PM2.5 and PM0.1reach the lower respiratory tract and penetrate the alveoli and circulatory system leading to respiratory and systemic diseases. Major sources of PM2.5 include traffic emissions, manufacturing, fuel oil combustion, biomass burning, soil dust, sea salt, and secondary aerosols (2). PM2.5 consists mainly of undetermined fractions, primarily originating from combustion and fuel-powered vehicle emissions, as well as auto parts' wear and tear. Its major components include black carbon, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aryl hydrocarbons, volatile organic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, organic compounds, minerals, inorganic ions, and biological materials, collectively constituting 79-85% of the total mass. PM2.5 can be emitted directly from sources or indirectly formed through gaseous emissions in the atmosphere. Studies on PM2.5's elemental composition reveal elevated levels of elements and ions, such as Al, As, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Fr, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Pb, Ti, Zn, sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium ions. Other sources of PM2.5 emission include human activities like residential cooking, smoking, social and economic development, meteorological factors, and secondary air pollution generation.(2). PM2.5 levels appear to be influenced by certain factors s...

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Section: Pm25 Exposure and Breast Cancer Riskmentioning

confidence: 52%

Breath of Danger: Unveiling PM2.5’s Stealthy Impact on Cancer Risks

MOKBEL

2024

Anticancer Res

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“…Most previous studies have investigated the inverse association between breast density and BMI. [ 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 ] Especially, BMI was negatively related to breast density in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women. [ 45 ] However, not all of the studies reported the consistent results, as Jeon et al .…”

Section: Epidemiologic Factorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The epidemiologic factors associated with breast density: A review

2022

J Res Med Sci

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In recent years, some studies have evaluated the epidemiologic factors associated with breast density. However, the variant and inconsistent results exist. In addition, breast density has been proved to be a significant risk factor associated with breast cancer. Our review summarized the published studies and emphasized the crucial factors including epidemiological factors associated with breast density. In addition, we also discussed the potential reasons for the discrepant results with risk factors. To decrease the incidence and mortality rates for breast cancer, in clinical practice, breast density should be included for clinical risk models in addition to epidemiological factors, and physicians should get more concentrate on those women with risk factors and provide risk-based breast cancer screening regimens.

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