Mammal responses to predator scents across multiple study areas

Abstract

Antipredator behaviors allow prey to mitigate the impacts of their predators. We investigated antipredator responses of two herbivore species, roe deer and European hare, and one mesopredator, red fox, toward predation risk imposed by lynx and wolf. We collected data (using camera traps) on visitation frequency and vigilance behavior to olfactory predator stimuli during 158 standardized scent trials in five areas across Europe, where lynx and wolves either occurred or had been absent for centuries. After a period without scent, trial sites were either marked with lynx or wolf urine, or butyric acid (unspecific scent used to contrast species-specific scent responses). We expected the two herbivores to respond aversively (reduced visitation frequency, and increased vigilance) to predator urine, while red foxes (scavengers) might adopt a risk-sensitive exploration strategy by increasing vigilance near predator urine without reducing visitation frequency. For all species, we expected stronger responses toward the ambush predator lynx than to the pursue predator wolf (cryptic predator hypothesis). If prey responds more strongly to predator stimuli when coexisting with the predator, we expected stronger reactions to predator urine in areas where predators occurred (naïve prey hypothesis). Roe deer significantly avoided lynx urine and butyric acid, but not wolf urine. However, roe deer visitation frequency did not differ between scent treatment with large

Eat or be eaten: Implications of potential exploitative competition between wolves and humans across predator‐savvy and predator‐naive deer populations

“…The absence of any response to wolf urine may also be a result of predator hunting strategies. Cursorial predators might fail to evoke strong anti‐predatory responses in deer, as opposed to pronounced effects as observed in the case of cues from ambush predators (Preisser et al., 2007 ; Sunde et al., 2022 ).…”

Numerical top‐down effects on red deer (Cervus elaphus) are mainly shaped by humans rather than large carnivores across Europe

“…As large carnivores, with special reference to wolves, are quickly increasing in Europe and their number is far from being stabilized, their impact on their prey may therefore become greater in the next decades and can potentially change predator–prey relationships. Besides these density‐mediated impacts on ungulate prey species, several studies have demonstrated the importance of the behaviourally mediated effects on ungulate prey species and mesocarnivores induced by the presence and patterns of space use of large carnivores, which also occur in human‐dominated landscapes of Europe (Bubnicki et al., 2019; Diserens et al., 2021; Kuijper et al., 2014; Sunde et al., 2022; van Beeck Calkoen et al., 2021; Wikenros et al., 2017).…”

“…Besides these density-mediated impacts on ungulate prey species, several studies have demonstrated the importance of the behaviourally mediated effects on ungulate prey species and mesocarnivores induced by the presence and patterns of space use of large carnivores, which also occur in human-dominated landscapes of Europe (Bubnicki et al, 2019;Diserens et al, 2021;Kuijper et al, 2014;Sunde et al, 2022;van Beeck Calkoen et al, 2021;Wikenros et al, 2017).…”

Eat or Be Eaten: Implications of potential exploitative competition between wolves and humans across predator- savvy and -naive deer populations

“…The absence of any response to wolf urine may also be a result of predator hunting strategies. Cursorial predators might fail to evoke strong anti-predatory responses in deer, as opposed to pronounced effects as observed in the case of cues from ambush predators [52,53].…”