Male out-migration from the Himalaya: implications in gender roles and household food (in)security in the Kaligandaki Basin, Nepal

Abstract

This paper investigates implications of male labour migration in gender roles and identity of women, and household food security outcome in the Kaligandaki Basin, Nepal. The study covers three study-clusters located at different ecological zones: Meghauli in Tarai, Lumle in Middle-Mountains, and Upper-Mustang in Trans-Himalaya. Data on private domain were collected through face-to-face interview in 360 households while data on public domain were obtained from group discussions conducted in 24 communities, and Key Informants Interviews taken with 75 individuals. The findings indicate that outmigration of men compelled women shoulder additional work-burden. Feminisation of agriculture and communities has reduced farm-production and increased food insecurity in terms of self-production. However, it is compensated by remittance sent by migrants and associated increase in access to marketed food. Despite male out-migration giving opportunity to women to be a household manager, it is limited to be a de facto household-head who lacks control over household assets. They have poor influence in community decision-making too, though increased the participation. Women in the basin are performing the roles of both men and women so are lacking particular gender identity. These findings indicate the need of integrating gender policy with migration, agriculture, and food security policies of Nepal.

Status of Farmland Abandonment and Its Determinants in the Transboundary Gandaki River Basin

“…Such processes of change have also been reported from the Andhi Khola watershed, which is also located in the Hill region of the GRB [8]. In addition, as the males migrate, the burden of agricultural work is also left to women and ultimately, the farmland is left abandoned [41].…”

“…Khanal and Watanabe (2006) conducted household survey in 78 households from two villages during 1999-2000. After 2000, Nepal witnessed many changes, particularly in population growth, increased foreign migration, political changes and others [8,41,42]. Thus, it is clear that farmland abandonment is common in the Hill region and has been an increasing trend in recent years.…”

Routledge Handbook of Gender and Agriculture

“…The recent literature documents men's migration originating from the following places: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sudan, Cambodia, Vietnam, China,Turkey, Peru, Nicaragua, Mexico, and Guatemala. Migration from and in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sudan, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Peru, and Nicaragua tends to fall into the first category of migration wherein men leave agricultural households to pursue wage labor and diversify the household's income (Daoud and Karama, 2012;Fan and Wang, 2008;Gartaula et al, 2010;Gioli et al, 2014;Jacobson et al, 2019;Koster et al, 2013;Pandey, 2019;Paris et al, 2009;Pattnaik et al, 2018;Tong et al, 2019). Migration from Mexico and Guatemala tends to fall into the second category wherein migrants move to the Global North (most frequently the US and Canada) to pursue employment as farmworkers (Lyon et al, 2010;Taylor et al, 2006).…”

Internal migration, remittances and labour force participation in rural India: A gender perspective

“…This increased participation need not necessarily lead to women's empowerment. Studies of feminization of agriculture have shown mixed results in this regard (Abdelali-Martini and Dey de Pryck 2015;Fakir and Abedin 2021;Pandey 2019;Spangler and Christie 2020). Although women may increase their labour force participation, their empowerment depends on factors such as whether they are living independently or with their in-laws (Gartaula, Niehof and Visser 2010).…”