Malaria: The Past and the Present

Abstract

Malaria is a severe disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans by a bite of an infected female mosquito of the species Anopheles. Malaria remains the leading cause of mortality around the world, and early diagnosis and fast-acting treatment prevent unwanted outcomes. It is the most common disease in Africa and some countries of Asia, while in the developed world malaria occurs as imported from endemic areas. The sweet sagewort plant was used as early as the second century BC to treat malaria fever in China. Much later, quinine started being used as an antimalaria drug. A global battle against malaria started in 1955, and Croatia declared 1964 to be the year of eradication of malaria. The World Health Organization carries out a malaria control program on a global scale, focusing on local strengthening of primary health care, early diagnosis of the disease, timely treatment, and disease prevention. Globally, the burden of malaria is lower than ten years ago. However, in the last few years, there has been an increase in the number of malaria cases around the world. It is moving towards targets established by the WHO, but that progress has slowed down.

Climatic changes and their role in emergence and re-emergence of diseases

“…However, in the twentieth century, WHO launched a global malaria eradication program which resulted in the eradication of malaria from 79 countries worldwide (mainly in Eurasia, Australia, northern America, and northern Africa with the exception of Turkey and countries of middle Asia including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) (Askling et al 2012;Caminade et al 2014). The eradication of malaria from Europe was officially declared in 1975 and was achieved via the drainage of wetland and stagnant water, chemical treatment of patients, biological control of the mosquito larvae using the fish Gambusia holbrooki, improvement of water system and sewage infrastructure (Talapko et al 2019). However, recently, between 2009 and 2012, several cases were diagnosed in Greece (Danis et al 2011).…”

Plasmodium falciparum pre-erythrocytic stage vaccine development

“…The choice of antigen to be used is quite complicated due to factors such as the parasite's complex life-cycle involving two reproduction cycles (sexual and asexual), different development stages and two hosts (the Anopheles mosquito and human beings). All this can be added to the multiple invasion routes described so far for each of its target cells (hepatocytes and/or erythrocytes), the parasite's ability to modify its gene expression and the genetic variability between P. falciparum circulating strains [157][158][159][160][161].…”

Malaria related myalgia-arthralgia: an imported case report treated with anti-malarial drug

“…A 21 years old female medical student, who just recently returned from her hometown Timika, Papua and coming back to Jakarta at mid of July 2020, suffer from high fever with chills, headache and muscle pain. About 1 week prior seeing the doctor in the Department of Parasitology at July 28th 2020, she started suffer from an intermittent high fever that occur every 48 hours or less, but the interval between temperature rises and drops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20203964 1 Department of Parasitology and The Centre of Biomedic Research, 2 Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia irregular, showing no clear distinct periodicity. The fever may reach 38.5 0 C at the highest point accompanying with chills and massive sweating profusely, then afterward the temperature return to normal and the patient felt better.…”

“…1 The disease is most prevalent in Sub Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. 2,3 Its global morbidity and even mortality still high, especially in the endemic area. Pregnant women and children are the most vulnerable group, but also travellers traveling to tourist areas which is considered as high transmission; the latter categorized as imported malaria, especially when the infection manifests in malarial free area, e.g.…”