Malaria Parasites: The Great Escape

Abstract

Parasites of the genus Plasmodium have a complex life cycle. They alternate between their final mosquito host and their intermediate hosts. The parasite can be either extra- or intracellular, depending on the stage of development. By modifying their shape, motility, and metabolic requirements, the parasite adapts to the different environments in their different hosts. The parasite has evolved to escape the multiple immune mechanisms in the host that try to block parasite development at the different stages of their development. In this article, we describe the mechanisms reported thus far that allow the Plasmodium parasite to evade innate and adaptive immune responses.

Correlation of APRIL with production of inflammatory cytokines during acute malaria in the Brazilian Amazon

“…Regarding B‐cells, a number of observations clearly demonstrate that B‐cell homeostasis is affected by Plasmodium infection . This can be attributed to the complex biology of the parasites , their antigenic diversity , and their immune‐modulatory molecules . The BAFF/APRIL system plays a variety of roles in immunomodulation, mainly by affecting B cell activation, proliferation, and survival.…”

“…Plasmodium infection [17,18,44,45]. This can be attributed to the complex biology of the parasites [46,47], their antigenic diversity [46][47][48], and their immune-modulatory molecules [49,50]. The BAFF/APRIL system plays a variety of roles in immunomodulation, mainly by affecting B cell activation, proliferation, and survival.…”

Nanoparticle-based vaccines

“…To address this problem, the newest generation of this vaccine is coformulated with Matrix-M, a saponin-based liposomal adjuvant [32]. However, the vaccine protection against P. falciparum has not been achieved due to the short-lived memory cells and the evasion mechanisms of the parasite [33]. The first malaria vaccine was tested in 1967 in animals using Plasmodium berghei s radiation-attenuated sporozoites, with a 100% of protection [34].…”

Immune effector mechanisms in malaria: An update focusing on human immunity

“…Pregnancy‐associated malaria studies highlight the concept that humans may not be immunologically naïve, even at birth, which could be an effect modifier when interpreting the function of immune mediators during early childhood. Immune evasion strategies employed by P. falciparum have also been reviewed elsewhere . Other recent reviews explore the extent of genetic variation and gene expression in malaria parasites and how Plasmodium genomes and transcriptomes are now readily able to be sequenced and analysed .…”