Making Sense of Monkeypox: A Comparison of Other Poxviruses to the Monkeypox

Pattnaik, Harsha; Surani, Salim; Goyal, Lokesh; Kashyap, Rahul

doi:10.7759/cureus.38083

Cited by 4 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 60 publications

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“…One of the most likely reasons for the increasing prevalence of monkeypox was the cessation of the smallpox vaccination programs in 1980, and the resultant decrease in herd immunity against poxviruses ( 34 , 35 , 60 ). Several studies have reported monkeypox to be more common in individuals who were not vaccinated against smallpox ( 52 , 95 ). The smallpox vaccine could be as much as 85% effective in preventing monkeypox, so since the cessation of the smallpox immunization programs, immunity to similar orthpoxviruses (e.g., monkeypox) has also decreased ( 1 , 15 , 23 , 24 , 35 , 39 ).…”

Section: Historymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In addition, the histologic features of monkeypox are very similar to those of smallpox and cowpox, although they are both noticeably different from other pox viruses ( 56 , 147 ). The crop-like, less centrifugally distributed lesions (than smallpox), and especially the presence of lymphadenopathy may indicate monkeypox ( 56 ), as lymphadenopathy is not a common feature of smallpox ( 95 ). Lymphadenopathy in the submandibular and the cervical or inguinal regions are also considered to be a key diagnostic feature that distinguishes monkeypox from smallpox ( 3 , 148 ).…”

Section: Diagnosismentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Human monkeypox: history, presentations, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Zahmatyar,

Fazlollahi,

Motamedi

et al. 2023

Front. Med.

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Human monkeypox is a zoonotic infection that is similar to the diseases caused by other poxviruses. It is endemic among wild rodents in the rainforests of Central and Western Africa, and can be transmitted via direct skin contact or mucosal exposure to infected animals. The initial symptoms include fever, headache, myalgia, fatigue, and lymphadenopathy, the last of which is the main symptom that distinguishes it from smallpox. In order to prevent and manage the disease, those who are infected must be rapidly diagnosed and isolated. Several vaccines have already been developed (e.g., JYNNEOS, ACAM2000 and ACAM3000) and antiviral drugs (e.g., cidofovir and tecovirimat) can also be used to treat the disease. In the present study, we reviewed the history, morphology, clinical presentations, transmission routes, diagnosis, prevention, and potential treatment strategies for monkeypox, in order to enable health authorities and physicians to better deal with this emerging crisis.

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Section: Historymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Diagnosismentioning

confidence: 99%

Human monkeypox: history, presentations, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Zahmatyar,

Fazlollahi,

Motamedi

et al. 2023

Front. Med.

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“…Monkeypox data from the DRC accounted for more than one-third of the eligible articles [2,4,[8][9][10][11]13,14,17,18,[20][21][22][23]. The remaining articles had monkeypox data from Gabon [5,7], Sierra Leone [3,20], Cameroon [4,6,23], CAR [4,12,15,[24][25][26][27][28], ROC [13,16,19,29], Cote d'Ivoire [3,4], Nigeria [3,30], Liberia [3,[31][32][33][34], and Pakistan [35]. Note: Two articles [3,4] described data for more than one country; therefore, the total number of articles per country exceeds 25.…”

Section: Number Of Reports By Countrymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…We identified 25 peer-reviewed articles [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][28][29][30] Each box denotes the number of probable cases, number of confirmed cases (n), number of deaths, and/or CFR (%). Where suspect cases were tested and found positive for another disease, these were subtracted from the suspect case total.…”

Section: Number Of Cases By Countrymentioning

confidence: 99%

The Changing Global Epidemiology of Re-emerging Human Monkeypox Virus Infection: A Systematic Review

Sham,

Sapna,

Anjali

et al. 2023

Cureus

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Human monkeypox virus (MPVX) infection represents an emerging zoonotic disease caused by an orthopoxvirus, resulting in a condition reminiscent of smallpox. More recent developments have witnessed a notable surge in global MPVX outbreaks, eliciting significant concerns. We aimed to investigate the epidemiological factors of the emerging human monkeypox virus infection, including the number of suspected, confirmed, and fatal cases, as well as the risk factors for contracting monkeypox infection. We performed a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature by following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. An electronic database search (PubMed, Wiley Online Library, and Science Direct) was undertaken. For monkeypox-related studies, we included 25 peer-reviewed articles from 2018 and 2022, and data were extracted on the current evidence on the cases and the risk factors for MPVX infection, to develop public health advisories. Our reports show a rapid rise of MPVX cases in the highly endemic African regions after the 1970s, spread to other countries, and an increase in the median age from young children to young adults. The cessation of smallpox vaccination might have been one of the factors responsible for these findings. As of 2022, the genomic sequences of ten MPVX strains associated with the recent countrywide outbreak have been determined. While the West African Clade has been primarily implicated in the recent viral surge, data were insufficient to determine which mutation contributed to increased transmissibility. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), sleeping on the floor was significantly associated with contracting MPVX, while eating or processing of animal foods was not a significant risk factor. In the United States, cleaning the cages and bedding of sick animals, touching infected animals, and daily exposure to sick animals were associated with an increased probability of contracting the MPVX infection. Recent global outbreaks and the rising incidence of MPVX infections among young adults in the endemic zones might be a result of the cessation of the smallpox vaccine. The increased risk associated with exposure to sick animals or sleeping on the floor suggests high infectivity from animal excretions. Increasing awareness, strict surveillance, and contact tracing can help contain global outbreaks. The ring vaccination approach for exposed individuals is another potential disease containment strategy. Future studies should investigate measures for rapid laboratory diagnosis, maintaining lab safety, and transmissibility.

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“…The main complications of this entity include bacterial superinfection, bronchopneumonia, encephalitis, and keratitis [ 10 ]. Higher-risk populations include neonates, children, and those with immunodeficiency [ 11 ]. Although there are limited data among people living with HIV (PLWHIV), it appears that those with persistent detectable viral load, low CD4 count, or a recent HIV-related illness are more likely to develop complications [ 12 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of Patients Admitted to a Secondary Hospital with Suspected MPOX Virus Infection: Is HIV Playing a Role?

Estévez,

Vara,

Gamo

et al. 2023

JCM

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MPOX (monkeypox) is a zoonotic viral disease, endemic in some Central and West African countries. However, in May 2022, cases began to be reported in non-endemic countries, demonstrating community transmission. Since the beginning of the outbreak, different epidemiological and clinical behaviors have been observed. We conducted an observational study at a secondary hospital in Madrid to characterize suspected and confirmed cases of MPOX epidemiologically and clinically. Besides the general descriptive analysis, we compared data between HIV-positive and HIV-negative subjects; 133 patients were evaluated with suspected MPOX, of which 100 were confirmed. Regarding positive cases, 71.0% were HIV positive, and 99.0% were men with a mean age of 33. In the previous year, 97.6% reported having sex with men, 53.6% used apps for sexual encounters, 22.9% practiced chemsex, and 16.7% went to saunas. Inguinal adenopathies were significantly higher in MPOX cases (54.0% vs. 12.1%, p < 0.001), as the involvement of genital and perianal area (57.0% vs. 27.3% and 17.0% vs. 1.0%, p = 0.006 and p = 0.082 respectively). Pustules were the most common skin lesion (45.0%). In HIV-positive cases, only 6.9% had a detectable viral load, and the mean CD4 count was 607.0/mm3. No significant differences were observed in the disease course, except for a greater tendency towards the appearance of perianal lesions. In conclusion, the MPOX 2022 outbreak in our area has been related to sexual intercourse among MSM, with no severe clinical cases nor apparent differences in HIV and non-HIV patients.

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Making Sense of Monkeypox: A Comparison of Other Poxviruses to the Monkeypox

Cited by 4 publications

References 60 publications

Human monkeypox: history, presentations, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Human monkeypox: history, presentations, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

The Changing Global Epidemiology of Re-emerging Human Monkeypox Virus Infection: A Systematic Review

Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of Patients Admitted to a Secondary Hospital with Suspected MPOX Virus Infection: Is HIV Playing a Role?

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