“…Deep learning has been widely applied in medical image identification, segmentation, and registration due to its promising performance with high precision and efficiency (Xu et al, 2022). Deep learning-based methods have been successfully implemented to segment 3D maxillofacial anatomical structures, such as teeth (Cui et al, 2022), mandible , maxillae (Zhang et al, 2023), zygoma bone (Tao et al, 2023), and maxillary sinuses (Xu et al, 2020) from CBCT images. It has been reported that human radiologists obtained a lower accuracy and segmentation efficiency in teeth and alveolar bone segmentation than in deep learning models (Cui et al, 2022).…”