Lying: deception in human affairs

Abstract

Seeking to clarify the concept of lying, I deal with several topics on which ideas vary. I consider the symbolic, intentional, misleading, and relational character of lies, and include secrecy and other forms of deliberate deception within lies on the basis of these components. Next, I distinguish between human and nonhuman deception, invoking the concepts of symbols, role‐taking, self, and mind. Following this, I present several representative categories of the infinite array of benign and exploitive social contexts in which lying occurs. In a brief discussion, I then impugn the commonly‐used notion of “self‐deception” as internally contradictory. And, finally, I describe both negative and positive consequences of deception in human affairs.

Deception in Family Therapy: Recognition, Implications, and Intervention

“…Examples include comments on personal items such as appearance, dress, and manner, that are more favourable than the truth when in reality the individual making the statement does not agree. Socially, these types of lies are considered fully acceptable and do not generally reflect negatively on the person telling them (Meltzer, 2003). The line of acceptable omission or intent to deceive can vary from relationship to relationship.…”

“…In general, however, deception can have many unfavourable outcomes on interpersonal relationships including negative effects on cooperation, feelings of lowered self-worth, prolonged or unfounded suspicion about that person's intentions or behaviours, a lingering sense of betrayal, and feeling ostracised from that family member or partner (Meltzer, 2003;Zitzman & Butler, 2009). One of the primary effects is impaired trust (Imber-Black, 1999).…”

“…Other negative consequences include increased suspicion in other areas of the relationship (or other relationships) and resentment toward the perceived betrayer (Argo & Shiv, 2012;Kaplar, 2006;Meltzer, 2003;Schweitzer et al, 2006). Deception also increases uncertainty in relationships, as the uncovering of betrayal can alter one's perception of reality (Freyd & Birrell, 2013;Planalp & Honeycutt, 1985).…”

“…Betrayal trauma contributes to the development of an untrusting template for future relationships (Argo & Shiv, 2012;Kaplar, 2006;Meltzer, 2003;Schweitzer et al, 2006), which may create more disturbance in cognitive mechanisms and lead to the impairment of trust and subsequent betrayal (Gobin & Freyd, 2014). Other negative consequences include increased suspicion in other areas of the relationship (or other relationships) and resentment toward the perceived betrayer (Argo & Shiv, 2012;Kaplar, 2006;Meltzer, 2003;Schweitzer et al, 2006).…”

“…Lying or deceiving may emerge as one's response to adapt (Meltzer, 2003), to avoid certain consequences, or when the costs of telling the truth outweigh the benefits of lying (Agosta et al, 2013;Granhag & Vrij, 2005). Lies range from being classified as relatively minor, such as reference to one's appearance, to avoiding the disclosure of a family secret such as one child being the result of an affair.…”