Longitudinal Predictors of Coronavirus-Related PTSD among Young Adults from Poland, Germany, Slovenia, and Israel

Abstract

The aim of this study was to reveal longitudinal predictors of coronavirus-related PTSD and the moderating roles of country, sex, age, and student status among young adults from Poland, Germany, Slovenia, and Israel. We included the following predictors: perceived stress, exposure to COVID-19, perceived impact of COVID-19 on well-being in socioeconomic status (PNIC-SES) and social relationships (PNIC-SR), fear of COVID-19, fear of vaccination, and trust in institutions. We conducted the study online among a representative sample of 1723 young adults aged 20–40 (M = 30.74, SD = 5.74) years in February 2021 (T1) and May–June 2021 (T2). We used McNemar’s χ2 and the paired samples Student’s t-test to test differences over time. We assessed the relationships between variables using Pearson’s correlation. We performed structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the associations between variables at T1 and T2. We used a lagged regression model to examine the causal influences between variables across different time points (T1 and T2). The results showed that all variables decreased over time, except exposure to COVID-19. The rates of infected, tested, and under-quarantine participants increased. The rates of those who lost a job and experienced worsening economic status decreased. The rate of hospitalized participants and those experiencing the loss of close ones did not change. Higher perceived stress, fear of COVID-19, fear of vaccination, and trust in institutions were significant longitudinal predictors of coronavirus-related PTSD regardless of country, sex, age, and student status. Institutions should provide more accurate programs for public health, so trust in institutions can be a protective and not a risk factor in future traumatic events.

A Path Model for Subjective Well-Being during the Second Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study among Polish and Ukrainian University Students

“…Apart from the coronavirus-related PTSD, all variables assumed in hypothesis H5 were confirmed in the study as significant predictors of life satisfaction, considering the multivariate linear regression model. The results of this study are consistent with previous studies that found numerous associations between these variables [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. For example, longitudinal research confirmed that in the three waves of the COVID-19 pandemic high anxiety risk was related negatively to life satisfaction and positively related to high levels of stress among Polish university students [ 6 ].…”

“…We have found relatively high prevalence rates of people dissatisfied with their lives (SWLS scores ≤ 20) among Polish university students ( n = 745, 47%) and a significantly lower number in Ukrainian students ( n = 545, 33%). The prevalence of life dissatisfaction during the first pandemic wave was 37% in the Polish sample and 40% in the Ukrainian group of students as suggested in our previous study [ 47 ]. So, we can conclude that the frequency of dissatisfied students significantly increased from the first to the second wave of the pandemic in the Polish sample while it slightly decreased in the Ukrainian group.…”

“…The outcome was categorized as sufficient (PA ≥ 150 min per last week) or insufficient exercise level (PA < 150 min weekly), according to recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 83 ]. The measure of PA was previously used in several studies [ 47 , 63 , 81 , 84 ].…”

“…It is important to note that the prevalence of stress, anxiety, and depression is dependent on the geographic region [ 3 , 23 ]. As evidenced in previous studies, university students and young adults from various countries have displayed different mean levels and associations between particular variables related to mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, including life satisfaction, self-rated physical health, stress, coronavirus-related PTSD, fear of vaccination, fear of COVID-19, anxiety, and depression during the first and second waves of the pandemic [ 4 , 5 , 30 , 31 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. In contrast, country (Germany, Israel, Poland, and Slovenia), sex, and age did not moderate the association of coronavirus-related PTSD with perceived stress, fear of COVID-19, fear of vaccination, and trust in institutions in a recent study among young adults during the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 48 ].…”

“…Regular physical activity (PA) has a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular, muscular, and nervous systems, improving physical health and mental well-being [ 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Unfortunately, a recent study showed that PA levels decreased while sedentary behavior simultaneously increased during the first phases of the COVID-19 pandemic due to social distancing and lockdown [ 8 , 34 , 47 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 ]. Furthermore, research showed that negative changes in health-related behavior (including PA) were associated with more symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 60 , 65 , 66 ].…”