Long-term psychiatric effects of trauma on children

Abstract

Even minor physical trauma can lead to significant psychological difficulties in children and adolescents, which are often overlooked. Their immediate reactions include behavioural, emotional and cognitive difficulties. Their thinking about the world can be disrupted, leading to further problems. Initial reactions can have a further knock-on effect, with significant consequences sometimes leading to an impact upon their adult personality. Major disaster plans should include a psychosocial aspect. Immediately following trauma, children should be re-united with their carers or a familiar adult as soon as possible. They should be offered an ageappropriate, careful, explanation of what has happened to them and what their treatment involves. Routine screening for psychological problems may help to prevent chronic psychological sequelae. Various treatments are available for psychological problems that persist.

Exposure to Potentially Traumatic Life Events in Children with Special Needs

“…Shaw [10] notes that children and adolescents may have a higher risk for developing PTSD upon exposure to PTLE than adults. Furthermore, a report of children who witnessed certain PTLE suggested that ''children can experience psychological trauma even when they are physically uninjured'' ( [9,11], p.261). Evidence even exists that children can react to PTLE that are only witnessed indirectly through the media [12,13].…”

“…A parent may be unaware of a PTLE in the child's life or underestimate its potential impact. A child's developmental level is an especially important factor in determining his or her response to PTLE [11,17]. On one hand, children who are too young (developmentally and/or chronologically) to fully understand the meaning of dramatic, disruptive events and the associated risks may be protected from strong emotional reactions whereas more cognitively developed children are more likely to be sensitive to the abstract and farreaching aspects of a PTLE.…”

Reported exposure to trauma among adult patients referred for psychological services at the Free State Psychiatric Complex, Bloemfontein

“…Apart from PTSD (a well-documented consequence of trauma exposure), previous trauma exposure has also been linked to an increased vulnerability to other forms of psychopathology, including depression, social anxiety, substance abuse, dissociative symptoms, personality disorders, aggressive behaviour, sexual dysfunction, self-mutilation and suicidal tendencies, as well as problems with self-esteem, parenting and an increased risk for later victimization (Allen & Lauterbach, 2007;Bandelow et al, 2004;Bedard-Gilligan et al, 2015;Bolton et al, 2004;Callahan, Price, & Hilsenroth, 2003;Fichter, Goldfeder, Conti, Rooney, & Demaria, 2011;Ford & Smith, 2008;Liebenberg & Papaikonomou, 2010;Munjiza, Law, & Crawford, 2014;Pine, Costello, & Masten, 2005;Seedat, Stein, & Carey, 2005;Stovall-McClough & Cloitre, 2006;Trickey & Black, 2000;Wolf, Reinhard, Cozolino, Caldwell, & Asamen, 2009). In a study conducted by Subramaney (2006) at a South African trauma clinic, it was found that other psychiatric disorders, in particular major depressive disorder, were more frequently diagnosed among patients reporting traumatic stress than PTSD.…”

Reported exposure to trauma among adult patients referred for psychological services at the Free State Psychiatric Complex, Bloemfontein

“…Apart from PTSD (a well-documented consequence of trauma exposure), previous trauma exposure has also been linked to an increased vulnerability to other forms of psychopathology, including depression, social anxiety, substance abuse, dissociative symptoms, personality disorders, aggressive behaviour, sexual dysfunction, self-mutilation and suicidal tendencies, as well as problems with self-esteem, parenting and an increased risk for later victimization ( Fichter, Goldfeder, Conti, Rooney, & Demaria, 2011;Ford & Smith, 2008;Liebenberg & Papaikonomou, 2010;Munjiza, Law, & Crawford, 2014;Pine, Costello, & Masten, 2005;Seedat, Stein, & Carey, 2005;Stovall-McClough & Cloitre, 2006;Trickey & Black, 2000;Wolf, Reinhard, Cozolino, Caldwell, & Asamen, 2009). In a study conducted by Subramaney (2006) at a South African trauma clinic, it was found that other psychiatric disorders, in particular major depressive disorder, were more frequently diagnosed among patients reporting traumatic stress than PTSD.…”