Long-Term Patterns of Change in the Commercialisation of Cocoa in Ghana: Forest Frontiers and Technological Transformation

Abstract

The commercialisation of cocoa production in Ghana has a long history dating back to the nineteenth century. The process of commercial development in cocoa is well documented and provides an alternative mode to contemporary models of commercialisation rooted in the adoption of modern technology and integration of farmers into markets. This working paper critically analyses frameworks for agricultural commercialisation in cocoa through intensification based on the uptake of synthetic inputs and hybrid seeds, by placing agricultural development within a broader framework of the historical development of the frontier in Ghana, and the related problems of ecological and economic crises. The study examines access to land, labour and technology, and how the complex interactions of scarcity of access to physical resources and labour influence farmers’ farming strategies and adoption of technology.

Children’s Work in West African Cocoa Production: Drivers, Contestations and Critical Reflections

“…By the mid-1930s, cocoa production had reached 300,000 tons, resulting in a 'frontier economy' in which cocoa cultivation continued to expand into the forest regions under the enterprise of migrant farmers with capital (Amanor, 2019). Although labour migration was initially the domain of young, single, male adults seeking to accumulate savings, by 1935, increasing numbers of women and children began to accompany them (Van Hear, 1982).…”

“…Although labour migration was initially the domain of young, single, male adults seeking to accumulate savings, by 1935, increasing numbers of women and children began to accompany them (Van Hear, 1982). Migrants were often drawn towards frontier areas where farmers had more capital to spend on labour and where weeding was less demanding than on mature farms (Amanor, 2019). As explained by Van Hear:…”

“…The abstraction of labour practices from their wider historical context is common in debates on cocoa production (Berlan, 2013). Amanor (2019) further reminds us that it remains vital to examine the relationship between land tenure systems, labour markets and family relations in production, to gain a better understanding of the contemporary cocoa industry.…”

Children’s Work in African Agriculture

“…By the mid-1930s, cocoa production had reached 300,000 tons, resulting in a 'frontier economy' in which cocoa cultivation continued to expand into the forest regions under the enterprise of migrant farmers with capital (Amanor, 2019). Although labour migration was initially the domain of young, single, male adults seeking to accumulate savings, by 1935, increasing numbers of women and children began to accompany them .…”

“…The abstraction of labour practices from their wider historical context is common in debates on cocoa production . Amanor (2019) further reminds us that it remains vital to examine the relationship between land tenure systems, labour markets and family relations in production, to gain a better understanding of the contemporary cocoa industry.…”