Long‐term effect of smoking on vertical periodontal bone loss

Abstract

The present observations indicate a significant long-term influence of smoking on vertical periodontal bone loss, yielding additional evidence that smoking is a risk factor for periodontal bone loss.

Tobacco Smoking and Periodontal Health in a Saudi Arabian Population

“…The dose-response relationship was also suggested by the observation that the relative risk increased with increasing exposure. This observation confirms the evidence of previous studies concerning cigarette smoking (Bergström et al 1991, Haber & Kent 1992, Haber et al 1993, Grossi et al 1995, Bergström et al 2000a,b, Tomar & Asma 2000, Teng et al 2003, Baljoon et al 2004, 2005a, Bergström 2004, Razali et al 2005. This strength the association found in this cross sectional study.…”

“…The noxious effect of cigarette smoking on periodontal health has been shown to be positively related to the amount of tobacco smoked (Haber et al 1993, Baljoon et al 2004, Susin et al 2004, Razali et al 2005. This dose-response relationship is confirmed in longitudinal studies comparing smokers and non-smokers, where long-term tobacco exposure was significally associated with disease severity (Norderyd et al 1999, Bergström et al 2000a, Baljoon et al 2005a). …”

Tobacco-induced changes to Porphyromonas gingivalis gene expression, phenotype and host-pathogen interactions.

“…Smokers also have an increased predisposition to bacterial-induced periodontal diseases (45,46). Shifts in periodontal plaque composition from one primarily constituted by Gram positive, aerobic commensals to a more anaerobic, Gram negative microflora that includes overt and opportunistic pathogens is also common in smokers (47).…”

“…The degree and extent of the inflammatory response to these pathogens is determined by several host-specific factors like age, race, genetic polymorphisms, underlying immune abnormalities, etc (121). However tobacco smoke is the most important environmental risk factor associated with chronic, inflammatory periodontal disease (45,46,122). …”

Characterization of the innate response to the RagB protein of Porphyromonas gingivalis.

“…Smoking is the greatest environmental risk factor for periodontal diseases. Smokers display a more severe form of periodontitis and are more refractory to treatment than non-smokers [24,25]. Smoking also leads to a pathogenenriched oral microbiota [26].…”