Loneliness during COVID-19: Development and influencing factors

Abstract

In early pandemic waves, when vaccination against COVID-19 was not yet an option, distancing and reduced social contact were the most effective measures to slow down the pandemic. Changes in frequency and forms of social contact have reduced the spread of the COVID-19 virus and thus saved lives, yet there is increasing evidence for negative side effects such as mental health issues. In the present study, we investigate the development of loneliness and its predictors to examine the role of changes in social networks due to social distancing and other COVID-19-related life changes. A total of 737 participants (age range = 18–81 years) completed an online survey in three waves during the last quarter of 2020 at one-month intervals. Latent growth and multilevel modeling revealed that emotional loneliness increased over time, while social loneliness remained stable. Moreover, socially lonely individuals were likely to also develop emotional loneliness over time. Increased social distancing and sanitary measures were accompanied by decreased social interactions and loss of individuals considered SOS contacts and confidants. Changes in specific social network indicators were differentially associated with changes in emotional vs social loneliness: Loss of friends considered confidants was associated with increasing emotional loneliness, whereas loss of friends considered SOS contacts and reduced overall social interactions were related to increasing social loneliness. Lastly, individuals with more family-and-friend SOS contacts, more friends as confidants and an overall higher number of social interactions were more protected from feeling socially or emotionally lonely. Study findings enhance the understanding of underlying mechanisms differentially contributing to social and emotional loneliness and offer practical suggestions to reduce mental-health side effects of social distancing.

A Longitudinal Study on Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan

“…It is evident that people with children continued to have social interactions, which were not interrupted by the pandemic; therefore, they likely felt companionship, which prevented them from developing continued loneliness. This correlation has also been demonstrated in other studies, which showed that a higher contact frequency with children or grandchildren reduced loneliness [ 12 , 40 ]. Furthermore, we found that myopic views of the future were significantly positively correlated with long-term loneliness among men.…”

“…However, there is a lack of comprehensive longitudinal studies that identify factors associated with long-term loneliness and compare them with post-pandemic and fresh loneliness. Lampraki et al [ 12 ] suggested that a longitudinal analysis during the prolonged phase of COVID-19 would effectively capture dynamics in social structures and population characteristics, which would serve as an important backdrop for determination of different conditions loneliness. Therefore, to fill this gap, this study classified loneliness into three categories: long-term, post-pandemic, and fresh loneliness.…”

Sociodemographic and Digital Education Factors Are Associated to General Health, Coping Strategies, and Academic Outcomes of Undergraduate Students during the Post-Pandemic Period

“…On the other hand, the results show that a decrease in general health was observed, coupled with an increase in measures of isolation and lack of relational connectedness. As reported in the introduction, the confinement measures caused psychological distress in the general population by affecting both the perceived social and emotional loneliness [ 53 ]. For undergraduate students, several aspects, alone or connected, may have had an influence on the lack of social connectedness and on the sense of isolation; for example, the distance between the place of residence and those of relatives and friends [ 29 , 30 ], or the lack of physical contact with persons other than cohabitants [ 54 ].…”

Perspectives and experiences of Covid-19: Two Irish studies of families in disadvantaged communities

“…Efforts to promote mental health can positively impact parents’, carers’ and children’s well-being [ 24 ]. Given the likely decrease in social interactions and social networks due to the pandemic, measures to promote social connections and prevent mental health issues, including loneliness, from becoming chronic can be needed [ 25 ]. According to our findings, these measures can be particularly relevant for families whose parents are not in paid employment.…”