Loneliness during a strict lockdown: Trajectories and predictors during the COVID-19 pandemic in 38,217 United Kingdom adults

Abstract

Rationale There are increasing worries that lockdowns and ‘stay-at-home’ orders due to the COVID-19 pandemic could lead to a rise in loneliness, which is recognised as a major public health concern. But profiles of loneliness during the pandemic and risk factors remain unclear. Objective The current study aimed to examine if and how loneliness levels changed during the strict lockdown and to explore the clustering of loneliness growth trajectories. Methods Data from 38,217 UK adults in the UCL COVID -19 Social Study (a panel study collecting data weekly during the pandemic) were analysed during the strict lockdown period in the UK (23/03/2020–10/05/2020). The sample was well-stratified and weighted to population proportions of gender, age, ethnicity, education and geographical location. Growth mixture modelling was used to identify the latent classes of loneliness growth trajectories and their predictors. Results Analyses revealed four classes, with the baseline loneliness level ranging from low to high. In the first a few weeks of lockdown, loneliness levels increased in the highest loneliness group, decreased in the lowest loneliness group, and stayed relatively constant in the middle two groups. Younger adults (OR = 2.17–6.81), women (OR = 1.59), people with low income (OR = 1.3), the economically inactive (OR = 1.3–2.04) and people with mental health conditions (OR = 5.32) were more likely to be in highest loneliness class relative to the lowest. Further, living with others or in a rural area, and having more close friends or greater social support were protective. Conclusions Perceived levels of loneliness under strict lockdown measures due to COVID-19 were relatively stable in the UK, but for many people these levels were high with no signs of improvement. Results suggest that more efforts are needed to address loneliness.

Changes in social relationships during an initial “stay-at-home” phase of the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal survey study in the U.S.

“…Loneliness is defined as a “distressing discrepancy between desired and actual levels of social contact” ( Rubin, 2017 ). We observed an increase in loneliness among our sample population consistent with media speculation and observed in other investigations ( Banerjee & Rai, 2020 ; Bu et al, 2020 ; Campbell, 2020 ). Abrupt changes in social norms due to the pandemic created discrepancies between actual and desired levels of social interaction, leading to feelings of increased loneliness.…”

The mental health impact of COVID-19 and lockdown-related stressors among adults in the UK

“…Similar to pre-pandemic trends, adults with low household income or socioeconomic position reported more anxiety and depression than adults with higher household income or socioeconomic position (Bu, Steptoe, & Fancourt, 2020a , 2020b ; Iob, Frank, Steptoe, & Fancourt, 2020 ; Wright, Steptoe, & Fancourt, 2020 ). Adults who were not in employment were more likely to report increasing levels of loneliness.…”

Economic Aspects of Loneliness in Australia

“…This is because the associated costs to healthcare systems are substantive (Mihalopoulos et al 2020), and governments have set aside funds in order to support preventive strategies (for example, Australian Government 2020; United Kingdom Government 2020b). The COVID‐19 pandemic, and resulting policy responses pertaining to national lockdowns and social distancing, have also exacerbated loneliness (although evidence on its persistence and long‐term consequences is still in its early days) (for example, Australian Bureau of Statistics 2020; Bu, Steptoe and Fancourt 2020a, 2020b; Buecker et al 2020; Killgore et al 2020), increasing the urgency of this body of research. However, the vast majority of the loneliness literature, including its evolutionary origins, psychological mechanisms, risk factors, trends, related health risks and potential interventions, lies predominantly in the fields of psychology, epidemiology and public health (see for a review Lim, Eres and Vasan 2020); there is additionally a growing literature on the biological and genetic bases of loneliness (for example, Cacioppo, Capitanio and Cacioppo 2014; Cole et al 2015; Day, Ong and Perry 2018; Spithoven et al 2019).…”