Growing concern about the sustainability of the natural environment is rapidly transforming the competitive landscape and forcing companies to explore the costs and benefits of "greening" their marketing mix. We develop and test a theoretical model that predicts (1) the role of green marketing programs in influencing firm performance, (2) the impact of slack resources and top management risk aversion on the deployment of such programs, and (3) the conditioning effects that underpin these relationships. Our analyses show that green marketing programs are being implemented by firms, and we find evidence of significant performance payoffs. Specifically the results indicate that green product and distribution programs positively affect firms' productmarket performance, while green pricing and promotion practices are directly positively related to firms' return on assets. In addition, industry-level environmental reputation moderates the links between green marketing program components and firms' product-market and financial performance. Finally, we find that slack resources and top management risk aversion are independently conducive to the adoption of green marketing programs-but operate as substitutes for each other. concern, regulatory pressure) but relatively few internal factors (e.g., top management commitment) that are conducive to this process (e.g., Banerjee et al. 2003). We identify and empirically examine two new internal factors that have largely been overlooked: slack resources and top management risk aversion (Menguc et al. 2010;Miles and Covin 2000). 1 We adopt the general and widely used term "environmentally friendly" to refer to any activity that is relatively less harmful or is even beneficial to the natural environment.
4Our study addresses these knowledge gaps and makes two primary contributions. First, we examine the product-market and return-on-assets (ROA) performance effects of environmentally friendly product, pricing, distribution, and promotion programs. We find that greening marketing programs can deliver product-market and financial performance benefits.However, we show that these benefits may vary across different green marketing program components and identify the key role of the industry's environmental reputation in conditioning some of these relationships. Our results suggest that researchers need to allow for different levels of greenness in individual marketing program components and capture industry-level variables in theorizing and empirically studying green marketing. Our findings also have important implications for managers in terms of where and how they should expect to achieve payback benefits from investments in greening marketing programs.Second, we provide evidence of the critical role of slack resources and top management risk aversion in the deployment of green marketing programs. In addition, we explore interaction effects and find that competitive intensity enhances the impact of slack resources on some components of green marketing programs. Our results al...