Living Sands: Symbiosis between Foraminifera and Algae

One-year survey of a single Micronesian reef reveals extraordinarily rich diversity of Symbiodinium types in soritid foraminifera

“…This strongly suggests that the biodiversity of both soritid hosts and symbionts are positively associated. Together, these observations support the idea that soritid foraminifera, at one time or another, must have been Xexible enough to accept unrelated Symbiodinium from neighboring metazoan hosts (Lee 2001). At the same time, however, Symbiodinium assemblages in soritids appear to have evolved in such a way that several highly speciWc host-symbiont relationships became evolutionarily stable, limiting further exchange between soritids and metazoan hosts in contemporary coral reef ecosystems.…”

Carbonic anhydrase is involved in calcification by the benthic foraminifer <i>Amphistegina lessonii</i>

“…It was shown that photosynthetic symbionts provide energy to their foraminiferal hosts (Lee, 2001) and that calcification in some foraminifera is enhanced by the photosymbiont's activity (e.g., Hallock, 2000;Stuhr et al, 2018). This was seen already by Muller (1978), for example, who reported increased carbon fixation by the foraminifer A. lessonii in the light compared to uptake of carbon in the dark.…”

Response of large benthic foraminifera to climate and local changes: Implications for future carbonate production

“…However, in the context of current rapid increases in anthropogenic CO 2 levels, combined effects of stressors and increasing local impacts, it is speculative whether LBF could once again dominate carbonate production (Lee & Hallock, 1987;Hallock, 2005). The multiple dimensions of the ecological niche that shape LBF species distribution patterns and adaptation, including the diversity and stability of symbiotic partnerships with different algal groups, microbiome characteristics and genetic differentiation influencing high species dispersal, needs further consideration and research (Lee, 2004;Webster et al, 2016;Prazeres et al, 2017aPrazeres et al, , 2020b. Thus, the study of past and present LBF populations offers opportunities for integration and linkages between ecology and evolution or eco-evolutionary ('eco-evo') dynamics (Pelletier et al, 2009) across multiple scales.…”

“…Large benthic foraminifera are an informal taxonomic group of benthic foraminifera. Their highly adapted and diverse tests are characterized by high surface to volume ratios, complex, compartmentalization of chamber systems (Hohenegger, 2009), and morphological adaptations (for example, flattening and transparency) for optimal light penetration, CO 2 uptake and high hydrodynamic energy (spines and/or rounded margins) (Leutenegger, 1977; Lee & Hallock, 1987; Lee, 2004; Hohenegger, 2009). The LBF with lamellar‐walled, perforate and hyaline tests (Order Rotaliida), house diatom symbionts (families Amphisteginidae, Calcarinidae, Nummulitidae), while those with non‐lamellar, imperforate and porcelaneous tests (Order Miliolida), typically house dinoflagellates (Soritidae), rhodophytic (Peneroplidae), chlorophytic (Peneroplidae) or diatom (Alveolinidae) symbionts (Hottinger, 1982).…”