Livestock faecal indicators for animal management, penning, foddering and dung use in early agricultural built environments in the Konya Plain, Central Anatolia

Abstract

Livestock dung is a valuable material for reconstructing human and animal interrelations and activity within open areas and built environments. This paper examines the identification and multidisciplinary analysis of dung remains from three neighbouring sites in the Konya Plain of Central Anatolia, Turkey: Boncuklu (ninth-eighth millennium cal BC), the Çatalhöyük East Mound (eighth-sixth millennium cal BC), and the Late Neolithic occupation at the Pınarbaşı rockshelter (seventh millennium cal BC). It presents and evaluates data on animal management strategies and husbandry practices through the simultaneous examination of plant and faecal microfossils and biomarkers with thin-section micromorphology and integrated phytolith, dung spherulite, and biomolecular analyses, together with comparative reference geo-ethnoarchaeological assemblages. Herbivore dung and other coprogenic materials have been identified predominantly in open areas, pens and midden deposits through micromorphology and the chemical signatures of their depositional contexts and composition. Accumulations of herbivore faecal material and burnt remains containing calcitic spherulites and phytoliths have provided new information on animal diet, fodder and dung fuel. Evidence from phytoliths from in situ penning deposits at early Neolithic Çatalhöyük have provided new insights into foddering/ grazing practices by identifying highly variable herbivorous regimes including both dicotyledonous and grass-based diets. This review illustrates the variability of dung deposits within early agricultural settlements and their potential for tracing continuity and change in ecological diversity, herd management strategies and foddering, health, energy and dung use, as well as the complexity of interactions between people and animals in this key region during the early Holocene.

Analysis of fine particulates from fuel burning in a reconstructed building at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Turkey and implications for respiratory health in early settled communities

“…After combustion, the by-products of dung include high amount of mineral matter, largely silica. Silica is due to the high phytolith content from the diet and is also observed in archaeological dung (Portillo et al 2020). The silica content presents a great threat to the human health.…”

“…Whilst the wood charcoal data is available for the length of occupation, data on levels of dung use are not as extensive. A systematic comparison of ash deposits relating to fuel use is needed to properly assess whether the types of fuel and their location changed over time, but current data indicates that dung was more likely to be used in outdoor fires (Portillo et al 2020). It is noted that outdoor areas are still at risk, and that exposure to air pollution often occurs in the environment surrounding a building, not just indoors.…”

“…dung for pottery production, as it burns more evenly and slowly than wood (Sillar 2000). Research at Çatalhöyük and other sites in Anatolia suggests that non-wood fuels, particularly Phragmites reeds and animal dung, became more important over time (Shillito et al 2011, Portillo et al 2020. There is also evidence that certain fuel-burning activities were located outdoors (Bogaard et al 2014, Shillito andRyan 2013), and that dung is associated more with outdoor burning activities (Portillo et al 2020).…”

“…Research at Çatalhöyük and other sites in Anatolia suggests that non-wood fuels, particularly Phragmites reeds and animal dung, became more important over time (Shillito et al 2011, Portillo et al 2020. There is also evidence that certain fuel-burning activities were located outdoors (Bogaard et al 2014, Shillito andRyan 2013), and that dung is associated more with outdoor burning activities (Portillo et al 2020). Given the large volume of fuel by-product deposits and the ubiquity of fuel burning activities, it is highly likely that the inhabitants were exposed to air pollutants from burning.…”

“…Given the large volume of fuel by-product deposits and the ubiquity of fuel burning activities, it is highly likely that the inhabitants were exposed to air pollutants from burning. High concentrations of silica particles in the form of phytoliths from grasses and reeds have also been identified in fuel deposits (Shillito et al 2011, Portillo et al 2020, which are known in historic and modern contexts to cause silicosis, a lung disease caused by inhalation of silica dust (Köksal andKahraman. 2011, Akgün et al 2013).…”